细胞内膜泡运输中拴系因子的功能

膜泡运输是不同细胞器间进行物质传递的基本方式,分为4个重要步骤：囊泡的出芽、转运、拴系和融合。在此过程中,有许多相关因子参与调控,如包被蛋白、Rab蛋白、拴系因子、SM蛋白和SNARE等。拴系因子在运输囊泡和靶位膜发生接触的最初阶段起重要调控作用,多数拴系因子形成大的多亚基复合体发挥功能。目前,关于拴系因子的功能已经有了一定的了解,在此,我们对酵母、哺乳动物以及植物细胞中的已知拴系因子的特点和功能进行了概述。     

Rab蛋白在囊泡转运中的作用及影响

Rab蛋白是真核生物中保守的小GTP酶家族. Rab蛋白在细胞中普遍表达,它的活性在细胞内受到严格的调控:在活性形式Rab-GTP和无活性形式Rab-GDP之间转换,这是由鸟嘌呤核苷酸交换因子(GEFs)和GTP酶活化蛋白(GAPs)调控的,并在囊泡转运的调控中起分子开关的作用.在囊泡运输中, Rab蛋白与不同的下游效应分子相互作用,参与从供体膜选择货物、出芽形成囊泡、调控囊泡沿细胞骨架运动、囊泡与受体膜锚定融合.当Rab蛋白功能受损导致囊泡转运途径障碍时,则会表现出不同的疾病,包括神经退行性疾病、癌症等.本文将对近年来Rab的蛋白结构和功能、参与囊泡运输的分子机制、Rab蛋白的循环调控以及其异常导致的疾病进行综述.     

Exocyst复合体的结构与功能研究进展

囊泡运输是真核细胞内细胞器间物质交流的重要手段,主要包括出芽、转运、拴系及膜融合四个环节.拴系因子调控运输囊泡与靶膜的初始接触,建立两者间的连接,并能够促进SNARE介导的膜融合过程.Exocyst是一个保守的八亚基拴系复合体,主要在胞吐过程中介导囊泡与细胞质膜的拴系过程.本文主要介绍exocyst复合体的结构和组装机...     

Rab蛋白在葡萄糖转运中的作用

在脂肪和骨骼肌细胞中,胰岛素可迅速刺激葡萄糖转运,即通常所说的GLUT4转运。 GLUT4转运是指Rabs与GTP结合时,促进囊泡与微管和微丝蛋白结合,并通过锚定和融合作用使GLUT4囊泡与目标膜结构融合。多数 Rab 家族成员广泛表达于各种组织细胞中,且在细胞内定位十分广泛,几乎存在于真核细胞所有的膜相关的细胞器的胞浆侧。 Rab 蛋白作为囊泡运输的分子开关,通过调节运输小泡的停泊和融合,在囊泡的形成、转运、粘附、锚定、融合等过程中起着重要的作用。 Rab蛋白受到多种上游调节蛋白的调节,同时调控着下游的多种效应蛋白,构成了复杂的调控网络：任何一个环节改变都可能会导致蛋白质转运的异常,进而引发疾病。本文系统阐述了Rab蛋白在葡萄糖转运过程中的作用及该领域的最新进展。     

囊泡胞吐机制及与其相关的神经元可塑性

突触前囊泡释放神经递质经历了磷酸化synapsin I使囊泡脱离细胞骨架,Rab3A导引囊泡进入突触前膜激活区,Rab3A与RIMl结合介导的囊泡锚定,Munc-13—1引燃SNARE中心复合体装配,最后Ca^2 结合到Ca^2 传感器synaptotagmin触发囊泡融合,融合后的囊泡通过SNAP和NSF的作用,使SNARE复合体解体后经内吞机制形成新的囊泡参与再循环。研究表明,参与囊泡融合的分子元件在神经元可塑性中发挥重要作用。     

细胞囊泡运输的发现者——鲁斯曼

细胞合成的分泌蛋白需运输到特定位置才可发挥重要的生物学功能,而此过程需要细胞囊泡介导完成。合成的蛋白首先进入细胞器,经过加工组装后通过出芽方式形成囊泡,然后运输到特定位置再和靶膜特异性融合而实现正确定位。囊泡运输生化机制是由鲁斯曼等科学家经过30多年研究得以阐明,拓展了对生命问题理解的同时还有望临床上得到广泛应用。     

胞浆囊泡转运的包被复合体与蛋白分拣

在胞浆囊泡转运体系中囊泡包被复合体对于蛋白的分拣与定向转运有重要意义。目前较明确的囊泡包被复合体有：笼形蛋白被复合体,COPⅠ、COPⅡ,囊泡相关肌球蛋白。这些复合体各有其特定识别序列,彼此分工又相互协同,维持着转运系统的协调有序。     

植物Rab蛋白的分类与功能

Rab蛋白构成小G蛋白超家族中最大的1个家族,广泛存在于动物、植物和微生物中.Rab调控细胞内的囊泡形成、转运、锚定及囊泡与质膜的融合等过程,在细胞内吞和分泌途径中发挥分子开关的作用.不同生物中Rab的结构和作用机制非常保守,但Rab的分类和生理学功能存在差异.植物Rab不仅行使类似于动物或微生物同源Rab的细胞学功能,而且在植物生长发育、激素信号调节、生物或非生物胁迫应答等方面表现出功能特异性.本文结合近年的研究进展,对植物Rab的分类、结构、调节机制和功能进行了综述,并对当前植物Rab功能研究的难点和方向进行了
讨论.     

Rab蛋白家族在神经类疾病中的作用

细胞内膜囊泡运输是一个复杂的通路网络,Rab GTPases是膜囊泡运输的主要调节剂,通常被认为是细胞内吞和分泌系统中各种细胞器和囊泡的特异性标记和识别物。与Rab蛋白相关的轴突运输、内体运输发生障碍是造成神经退行性疾病的重要原因之一。本文主要介绍了Rab蛋白在多种神经退行性疾病病理机制中的作用机理与调控机制,同时讨论了线粒体和胶质细胞功能异常与Rab蛋白之间的关联。深入探究Rab蛋白的作用机制对人类神经性疾病的早期诊断和治疗具有潜在的指导意义。     

Rab蛋白的结构、功能及进化

Rab蛋白是小分子GTP结合蛋白家族(small GTP-binding proteins)中最大的亚家族,大约由200个氨基酸组成,由保守的G结构域与高度可变的N端和C端组成。Rab蛋白作为细胞内囊泡运输的分子开关,与其上游调控子和下游特定的效应子相互作用,并与GTP的结合和水解过程相偶联,在囊泡运输的不同阶段发挥作用。对不同Rab蛋白调控囊泡运输的研究有利干全面理解细胞内各类囊泡定向运输的分子动力学机制。     

RUTBC2 protein, a Rab9A effector and GTPase-activating protein for Rab36

Rab GTPases regulate vesicle budding, motility, docking, and fusion. In cells, their cycling between active, GTP-bound states and inactive, GDP-bound states is regulated by the action of opposing enzymes called guanine nucleotide exchange factors and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs). The substrates for most RabGAPs are unknown, and the potential for cross-talk between different membrane trafficking pathways remains uncharted territory. Rab9A and its effectors regulate recycling of mannose 6-phosphate receptors from late endosomes to the trans Golgi network. We show here that RUTBC2 is a TBC domain-containing protein that binds to Rab9A specifically both in vitro and in cultured cells but is not a GAP for Rab9A. Biochemical screening of Rab protein substrates for RUTBC2 revealed highest GAP activity toward Rab34 and Rab36. In cells, membrane-associated RUTBC2 co-localizes with Rab36, and expression of wild type RUTBC2, but not the catalytically inactive, RUTBC2 R829A mutant, decreases the amount of membrane-associated Rab36 protein. These data show that RUTBC2 can act as a Rab36 GAP in cells and suggest that RUTBC2 links Rab9A function to Rab36 function in the endosomal system.     

Crystal structure of inactive form of Rab3B

Rab proteins are the largest family of ras-related GTPases in eukaryotic cells. They act as directional molecular switches at membrane trafficking, including vesicle budding, cargo sorting, transport, tethering, and fusion. Here, we generated and crystallized the Rab3B:GDP complex. The structure of the complex was solved to 1.9 Å resolution and the structural base comparison with other Rab3 members provides a structural basis for the GDP/GTP switch in controlling the activity of small GTPase. The comparison of charge distribution among the members of Rab3 also indicates their different roles in vesicular trafficking.     

The Rab GTPase family

The Rab family is part of the Ras superfamily of small GTPases. There are at least 60 Rab genes in the human genome, and a number of Rab GTPases are conserved from yeast to humans. The different Rab GTPases are localized to the cytosolic face of specific intracellular membranes, where they function as regulators of distinct steps in membrane traffic pathways. In the GTP-bound form, the Rab GTPases recruit specific sets of effector proteins onto membranes. Through their effectors, Rab GTPases regulate vesicle formation, actin- and tubulin-dependent vesicle movement, and membrane fusion.     

Rab1 interaction with a GM130 effector complex regulates COPII vesicle cis--Golgi tethering

Members of the Rab family of small molecular weight GTPases regulate the fusion of transport intermediates to target membranes along the biosynthetic and endocytic pathways. We recently demonstrated that Rab1 recruitment of the tethering factor p115 into a cis -SNARE complex programs coat protein II vesicles budding from the endoplasmic reticulum (donor compartment) for fusion with the Golgi apparatus (acceptor compartment) (Allan BB, Moyer BD, Balch WE. Science 2000; 289: 444–448). However, the molecular mechanism(s) of Rab regulation of Golgi acceptor compartment function in endoplasmic reticulum to Golgi transport are unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the cis -Golgi tethering protein GM130, complexed with GRASP65 and other proteins, forms a novel Rab1 effector complex that interacts with activated Rab1-GTP in a p115-independent manner and is required for coat protein II vesicle targeting/fusion with the cis -Golgi. We propose a 'homing hypothesis' in which the same Rab interacts with distinct tethering factors at donor and acceptor membranes to program heterotypic membrane fusion events between transport intermediates and their target compartments.     

Rab proteins: The key regulators of intracellular vesicle transport

Vesicular/membrane trafficking essentially regulates the compartmentalization and abundance of proteins within the cells and contributes in many signalling pathways. This membrane transport in eukaryotic cells is a complex process regulated by a large and diverse array of proteins. A large group of monomeric small GTPases; the Rabs are essential components of this membrane trafficking route. Most of the Rabs are ubiquitously expressed proteins and have been implicated in vesicle formation, vesicle motility/delivery along cytoskeleton elements and docking/fusion at target membranes through the recruitment of effectors. Functional impairments of Rabs affecting transport pathways manifest different diseases. Rab functions are accompanied by cyclical activation and inactivation of GTP-bound and GDP-bound forms between the cytosol and membranes which is regulated by upstream regulators. Rab proteins are characterized by their distinct sub-cellular localization and regulate a wide variety of endocytic, transcytic and exocytic transport pathways. Mutations of Rabs affect cell growth, motility and other biological processes.     

The C. elegans Rab Family: Identification,Classification and Toolkit Construction

Rab monomeric GTPases regulate specific aspects of vesicle transport in eukaryotes including coat recruitment, uncoating, fission, motility, target selection and fusion. Moreover, individual Rab proteins function at specific sites within the cell, for example the ER, golgi and early endosome. Importantly, the localization and function of individual Rab subfamily members are often conserved underscoring the significant contributions that model organisms such as Caenorhabditis elegans can make towards a better understanding of human disease caused by Rab and vesicle trafficking malfunction. With this in mind, a bioinformatics approach was first taken to identify and classify the complete C. elegans Rab family placing individual Rabs into specific subfamilies based on molecular phylogenetics. For genes that were difficult to classify by sequence similarity alone, we did a comparative analysis of intron position among specific subfamilies from yeast to humans. This two-pronged approach allowed the classification of 30 out of 31 C. elegans Rab proteins identified here including Rab31/Rab50, a likely member of the last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA). Second, a molecular toolset was created to facilitate research on biological processes that involve Rab proteins. Specifically, we used Gateway-compatible C. elegans ORFeome clones as starting material to create 44 full-length, sequence-verified, dominant-negative (DN) and constitutive active (CA) rab open reading frames (ORFs). Development of this toolset provided independent research projects for students enrolled in a research-based molecular techniques course at California State University, East Bay (CSUEB).     

Rab proteins, connecting transport and vesicle fusion

Small GTPases of the Rab family control timing of vesicle fusion. Fusion of two vesicles can only occur when they have been brought into close contact. Transport by microtubule- or actin-based motor proteins will facilitate this process in vivo. Ideally, transport and vesicle fusion are linked activities. Active, GTP-bound Rab proteins dock on specific compartments and are therefore perfect candidates to control transport of the different compartments. Recently, a number of Rab proteins were identified that control motor protein recruitment to their specific target membranes. By cycling through inactive and active states, Rab proteins are able to control motor protein-mediated transport and subsequent fusion of intracellular structures in both spatial and timed manners.     

Rabs grab motors: defining the connections between Rab GTPases and motor proteins.

Rab GTPases and their effectors regulate membrane traffic by determining, along with cognate SNAREs, the specificity of transport vesicle docking and fusion steps. Recent studies have also implicated Rabs in the movement of these transport vesicles from their site of formation to their site of fusion, and several Rabs have been linked to specific microtubule- or actin-based motor proteins. Analyses of Rab and motor protein mutants, coupled with advanced imaging techniques, have led to the suggestion that certain Rabs function as essential components of the vesicle receptor for specific motor proteins.     

Rab5 Induces Rac-independent Lamellipodia Formation and Cell Migration

Rab5 is a regulatory GTPase of vesicle docking and fusion that is involved in receptor-mediated endocytosis and pinocytosis. Introduction of active Rab5 in cells stimulates the rate of endocytosis and vesicle fusion, resulting in the formation of large endocytic vesicles, whereas dominant negative Rab5 inhibits vesicle fusion. Here we show that introduction of active Rab5 in fibroblasts also induced reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton but not of microtubule filaments, resulting in prominent lamellipodia formation. The Rab5-induced lamellipodia formation did not require activation of PI3-K or the GTPases Ras, Rac, Cdc42, or Rho, which are all strongly implicated in cytoskeletal reorganization. Furthermore, lamellipodia formation by insulin, Ras, or Rac was not affected by expression of dominant negative Rab5. In addition, cells expressing active Rab5 displayed a dramatic stimulation of cell migration, with the lamellipodia serving as the leading edge. Both lamellipodia formation and cell migration were dependent on actin polymerization but not on microtubules. These results demonstrate that Rab5 induces lamellipodia formation and cell migration and that the Rab5-induced lamellipodia formation occurs by a novel mechanism independent of, and distinct from, PI3-K, Ras, or Rho-family GTPases. Thus, Rab5 can control not only endocytosis but also actin cytoskeleton reorganization and cell migration, which provides strong support for an intricate relationship between these processes.     

The Rab5 effector EEA1 interacts directly with syntaxin-6.

The fusion of transport vesicles with their cognate target membranes, an essential event in intracellular membrane trafficking, is regulated by SNARE proteins and Rab GTPases. Rab GTPases are thought to act prior to SNAREs in vesicle docking, but the exact biochemical relationship between the two classes of molecules is not known. We recently identified the early endosomal autoantigen EEA1 as an effector of Rab5 in endocytic membrane fusion. Here we demonstrate that EEA1 interacts directly and specifically with syntaxin-6, a SNARE implicated in trans-Golgi network to early endosome trafficking. The binding site for syntaxin-6 overlaps with that of Rab5-GTP at the C terminus of EEA1. Syntaxin-6 and EEA1 were found to colocalize extensively on early endosomes, although syntaxin-6 is present in the trans-Golgi network as well. Our results indicate that SNAREs can interact directly with Rab effectors, and suggest that EEA1 may participate in trans-Golgi network to endosome as well as in endocytic membrane traffic.