含Dsred类似生色团的红色荧光蛋白的发展及应用

自从绿色荧光蛋白(GFP)被发现以来,荧光蛋白在生物医学领域已经成为一种重要的荧光成像工具．随着红色荧光蛋白DsRed的出现,各种优化的DsRed突变体和远红荧光蛋白也不断涌现．其中荧光蛋白生色团的形成机制对改建更优的荧光蛋白变种影响很大,对于红色荧光蛋白而言,大多数的红色荧光蛋白的生色团类型为DsRed类似生色团,在此基础上又出现了Far-red DsRed类似生色团．目前,含DsRed类似生色团的荧光蛋白主要有单体红色荧光蛋白、光转换荧光蛋白、斯托克斯红移蛋白、荧光计时器等．这些优化的荧光蛋白作为分子探针可以实现对活细胞、细胞器或胞内分子的时空标记和追踪,已经在生物工程学、细胞生物学、基础医学领域得到广泛应用．本文综述了含DsRed类似生色团的荧光蛋白的研究进展及其应用,以及由此发展起来的远红荧光蛋白在活体显微成像技术中的应用,并展望了荧光探针技术研究的新方向．     

板栗疫病菌绿色荧光与红色荧光蛋白共定位载体的构建

低毒病毒-板栗疫病菌组合是研究病毒与宿主相互作用的一个优秀的模式系统.我们构建了含绿色荧光蛋白基因gfp的载体pCPXHY2GFP与含红色荧光蛋白基因rfp的载体pCPXG418RFP,并用于转化野生型菌株EP155,获得了以潮霉素为筛选标记、表达绿色荧光蛋白的转化株pCPXHY2GFP/EP155和以G418为筛选标记、表达红色荧光蛋白的转化株pCPXG418RFP/EP155.将载体pCPXG418RFP转化pCPXHY2GFP/EP155,获得的转化株能观察到绿色荧光蛋白与红色荧光蛋白共定位的现象.板栗疫病菌绿色荧光与红色荧光共定位载体pCPXHY2GFP与pCPXG418RFP的构建,为深入研究病毒与宿主相互作用的分子机制提供了强有力的研究材料.     

一种利用Cre/loxP系统进行标记基因删除与靶基因置换的细胞模型研究

Cre/lox系统可以介导DNA的定点插入和定点删除,可利用其实现转基因动物中"友好位点"的重复利用及标记基因的有效删除.为直观地评估该系统介导的以上两种重组反应的效果,通过标记基因并利用大鼠乳腺癌细胞系SHZ-88进行了模型研究.首先构建了两个载体:a.整合载体pTE-lox2272-DsRed-loxP-GFP-loxP,含有红色荧光标记基因DsRed和绿色荧光标记基因GFP;b.置换载体pT-lox2272-neo-loxP,含有筛选标记基因neo,用以置换DsRed基因.然后,用整合载体转染SHZ-88细胞,并随机挑取了3个同时表达DsRed和GFP的稳定整合细胞克隆.随后用置换载体和Cre表达载体PBS185对以上每个克隆分别进行了3次共转染,通过G418筛选并扩增培养后,总共获得1 070个克隆.通过分析标记基因DsRed和GFP在这些克隆中的表达情况:Cre介导的删除效率为91.1%,定点置换效率为29.3%.最后对部分克隆进行了PCR和DNA印迹鉴定,分子鉴定结果与发光的表型状况一致.这一方法为Cre/lox系统在转基因家畜生产中的进一步应用提供了实验依据.     

利用荧光标记高通量鉴定减数分裂重组抑制突变体

正向遗传学突变体筛选被广泛用于揭示减数分裂中涉及的遗传基因, 如调控减数分裂II型交叉形成途径的重组抑制基因。该研究利用拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)花粉荧光标记系进行EMS突变体的正向遗传学筛选, 鉴定拟南芥野生型Col遗传背景下的重组抑制突变体, 共获得18个重组率显著提高3倍以上的重组抑制突变体, 其中包括显性和隐性遗传突变。研究表明, 基于荧光标记高通量鉴定重组抑制突变体是可行的, 可为植物减数分裂重组调控分子机制研究提供新方法和突变材料。     

利用荧光标记高通量鉴定减数分裂重组抑制突变体

正向遗传学突变体筛选被广泛用于揭示减数分裂中涉及的遗传基因, 如调控减数分裂II型交叉形成途径的重组抑制基因。该研究利用拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)花粉荧光标记系进行EMS突变体的正向遗传学筛选, 鉴定拟南芥野生型Col遗传背景下的重组抑制突变体, 共获得18个重组率显著提高3倍以上的重组抑制突变体, 其中包括显性和隐性遗传突变。研究表明, 基于荧光标记高通量鉴定重组抑制突变体是可行的, 可为植物减数分裂重组调控分子机制研究提供新方法和突变材料。     

利用GFP表达系统检测球孢白僵菌侵染昆虫过程

绿色荧光蛋白(GFP)作为一种重要的报告基因,在病原菌和寄主之间的互作研究中具有良好的应用前景。利用草丁膦抗性基因bar为筛选标记,构建了组成性表达绿色荧光蛋白基因egfp的载体pBG,并转入球孢白僵菌获得成功表达。将转化子接种菜青虫进行生物测定表明,组成性表达egfp不影响球孢白僵菌的毒力。进一步利用冰冻切片和荧光显微观察技术监测球孢白僵菌侵染寄主行为,结果显示,通过荧光观察可清楚的检测到病原菌在昆虫体表的附着、菌丝穿透体壁以及菌丝从寄主体内长出等侵染过程。由此表明,GFP可有效用于球孢白僵菌的遗传标记,进行病原菌的鉴别、侵染致病机理及相关功能基因的表达模式研究。     

珊瑚和海葵来源红荧光蛋白的研究和应用

绿色荧光蛋白作为标记蛋白和报告蛋白在生物学研究中应用越来越广。但在荧光共振能量转移(fluorescenceresonanceenergytransfer,FRET)等技术中存在一些缺陷,需要更大波长范围的荧光蛋白。最近研究发现了多种来源于珊瑚和海葵的红荧光蛋白,这些长波长的荧光蛋白对绿色荧光蛋白是一种很好的代替和补充,可以实现细胞内多荧光标记,提供更理想的FRET荧光对。经随机突变和定点突变等方法改建获得的红荧光蛋白变种显示出更高的荧光强度,成熟时间也更短。目前应用较多的是来源于香菇珊瑚(Discosomasp.)的红荧光蛋白DsRed。     

斑马鱼sat1.a突变体的鉴定

目的在我们的前期研究工作中,通过Tol2转座子介导的插入突变,筛选到了一批组织特异性表达绿色荧光蛋白GFP的斑马鱼品系。其中一个品系Tol2:20141221t的GFP在神经系统中表达,但还没有鉴定到Tol2转座子插入到基因组什么位置,造成了哪个基因的突变。本文的主要研究目标就是对这一由Tol2转座子插入诱导的斑马鱼突变品系进行鉴定。方法使用交错式热不对称PCR(thermal asymmetric interlaced PCR,TAIL-PCR)鉴定Tol2转座子插入的基因组位置;利用原位杂交检测被突变的基因的时空表达是否与该品系GFP表达具有一致性;筛选鉴定纯合体突变体,并进一步分析该基因突变造成的发育缺陷。结果在该品系中,Tol2转座子插入到了亚精胺/精胺N1-乙酰基转移酶1a(spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase 1a,sat1.a)的第八个内含子区域,致使sat1.a基因转录提前终止。我们筛选到了sat1.a纯合突变体,但是没有检测到明显的发育缺陷。结论筛选鉴定的Tol2转座子介导的斑马鱼sat1.a突变体没有明显的发育缺陷,但可以作为研究神经系统发育的有力工具。     

动态检测活细胞内泛素-蛋白酶体系统活性方法的建立

目的建立一种动态检测活细胞内泛素-蛋白酶体系统活性的方法。方法将表达绿色荧光蛋白（GFP）或红色荧光蛋白（DsRed2）的质粒分别改建为表达带有内泛素-蛋白酶体系统降解信号CL1的GFP或DsRed2的pGFP^u或pDsRed2质粒,然后转染HEK293细胞,通过G418筛选得到稳定表达GFP^u或DsRed2^u的细胞系。在蛋白酶体抑制N—Acetyl—Leu-Leu—Norleu—al（ALLN）处理GFP^u或DsRed2^u细胞后,应用免疫印记技术检测细胞内GFP或DsRed,含量的变化,应用荧光显微镜和激光扫描共聚焦显微镜技术观察GFP或DsRed,荧光强度的变化。结果ALLN处理能使GFP“和DsRed2^u细胞内GFP和DsRed。含量明显增加,荧光强度显著增强,并呈现明显的剂量／时间-效应关系。结论本文成功地建立了检测内泛素-蛋白酶体系统活性的方法,该方法能有效地对活细胞的内泛素-蛋白酶体系统活性进行实时动态检测。     

GFP基因转化藿香的研究

以藿香无菌苗幼嫩茎段为受体,利用根癌农杆菌介导法进行了绿色荧光蛋白基因(GFP)的遗传转化研究。经农杆菌侵染,通过共培养、选择培养后获得其抗性愈伤组织,对抗性愈伤组织的诱导过程进行了GFP荧光检测。结果表明,GFP基因能在抗性愈伤组织中强烈表达,证明GFP基因能够在藿香遗传转化中得到应用。对抗性愈伤组织的PCR检测初步证实外源GFP基因已整合到藿香愈伤组织的基因组中。     

Fluorescent transformation markers for insect transgenesis

The first effectively achieved germ-line transformations of non-drosophilid insects were based on mutant rescue of eye color phenotypes. However, for most insect species neither visible mutants nor corresponding cloned genes are available. Therefore, the development of broadly applicable and reliable transformation markers will be of great importance to fully exploit the enormous potential transgenic insect technology has to offer. Here we review transposon-mediated germ-line transformation approaches that employ green fluorescent protein (GFP) variants to identify successful gene transfer. Furthermore, we provide novel data on the use of DsRed as an additional red fluorescent transformation marker for insect transgenesis. In conclusion, fluorescent proteins controlled by suitable strong promoters possess ideal characteristics to serve as transformation markers for a wide range of insect species.     

Transformation of Metarhizium anisopliae mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens

A simple, highly efficient, and reliable Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation method was developed for the insect pathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae. Expression of the green fluorescent protein gene, egfp, and the benomyl resistance gene, benA3, were used as markers in transformed M. anisopliae. Transformation efficiencies were dependent on the strain of A. tumefaciens used. With strain AGL-1, 17.0 +/- 1.4 transformants per plate could be obtained using conidial concentrations of 10(6) conidia/mL and a 2 day co-cultivation in the presence of 200 micromol/L acetosyringone. On the other hand, transformations using strain LBA4404 were unsuccessful. Ten transformants were tested by Southern analysis and found to contain a single copy T-DNA. Twenty transformants were subcultured for five generations on nonselective media, and 95% of the transformants were mitotically stable. Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of M. anisopliae can serve as a useful tool to investigate genes involved in insect pathogenicity.     

Towards the genetic control of insect vectors: An overview

Insects are responsible for the transmission of major infectious diseases. Recent advances in insect genomics and transformation technology provide new strategies for the control of insect borne pathogen transmission and insect pest management. One such strategy is the genetic modification of insects with genes that block pathogen development. Another is to suppress insect populations by releasing either sterile males or males carrying female‐specific dominant lethal genes into the environment. Although significant progress has been made in the laboratory, further research is needed to extend these approaches to the field. These insect control strategies offer several advantages over conventional insecticide‐based strategies. However, the release of genetically modified insects into the environment should proceed with great caution, after ensuring its safety, and acceptance by the target populations.     

Variables Controlling the Expression Level of Exogenous Genes in Dictyostelium

Ectopic expression of genes from recombinant plasmids is commonly used to study gene function. In Dictyostelium, three drug resistance cassettes are commonly used as selectable markers in vectors. We report here a comparative study of the expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene from vectors containing each of the drug-resistant cassettes. The expression was highest in cells transformed with the vectors containing the neomycin-resistant cassette (pDNeoGFP), followed by the hygromycin-resistant cassette (pDHygGFP) and the blasticidin-resistant cassette (pDBsrGFP). The level of GFP expression was directly related to the copy number of the vector in transformants. In turn, the copy number of the vector depended on the drug resistance cassette as well as the concentration of the drug used in selection. In general, cells with higher copy numbers could be selected by a higher drug concentration. The expression of GFP was also affected by the method of transformation. For pDHygGFP, expression of GFP was much higher in cells transformed by electroporation than those transformed by calcium phosphate coprecipitation. However, only a slight difference was observed for pDNeoGFP or pDBsrGFP.     

Variables controlling the expression level of exogenous genes in Dictyostelium.

Ectopic expression of genes from recombinant plasmids is commonly used to study gene function. In Dictyostelium, three drug resistance cassettes are commonly used as selectable markers in vectors. We report here a comparative study of the expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene from vectors containing each of the drug-resistant cassettes. The expression was highest in cells transformed with the vectors containing the neomycin-resistant cassette (pDNeoGFP), followed by the hygromycin-resistant cassette (pDHygGFP) and the blasticidin-resistant cassette (pDBsrGFP). The level of GFP expression was directly related to the copy number of the vector in transformants. In turn, the copy number of the vector depended on the drug resistance cassette as well as the concentration of the drug used in selection. In general, cells with higher copy numbers could be selected by a higher drug concentration. The expression of GFP was also affected by the method of transformation. For pDHygGFP, expression of GFP was much higher in cells transformed by electroporation than those transformed by calcium phosphate coprecipitation. However, only a slight difference was observed for pDNeoGFP or pDBsrGFP.     

GFP基因转化香樟胚性愈伤组织的研究

以香樟胚性愈伤组织作为受体,利用根癌农杆菌介导法进行了绿色荧光蛋白基因(GFP)的遗传转化研究。经农杆菌侵染后的胚性愈伤组织通过共培养、选择培养后获得抗性愈伤组织和体胚,对抗性愈伤组织及体胚的诱导过程进行了GFP荧光检测。结果表明,GFP基因能在抗性愈伤组织和体胚中强烈表达,证明GFP基因能够在香樟遗传转化中得到应用。对抗性愈伤组织的PCR检测初步证实外源GFP基因已整合到香樟胚性愈伤组织的基因组中。     

Easy detection of green fluorescent protein multicopy transformants in Penicillium griseoroseum

Penicillium griseoroseum, a deuteromycete fungus producer of pectinolytic enzymes, was transformed with a gene encoding for green fluorescent protein (GFP). The selection of transformants was based on the homologous nitrate reductase gene (niaD). Protoplasts of a P. griseoroseum Nia mutant (PG63) were co-transformed with the plasmids pNPG1 and pAN52-1-GFP. The plasmid pNPG-1 carries the homologous niaD gene and pAN52-1-GFP carries the SGFP-TYG version of GFP. The highest transformation efficiency (102 transformants/mug of pNPG1) resulted from the utilization of equimolar amounts of transforming and co-transforming vectors. Analysis of pAN52-1-GFP insertions into the genomic DNA of the transformants revealed single and multiple copy integrations. The transformants possessing a single copy of the gfp gene showed a low level of fluorescence, whereas multicopy transformants displayed strong fluorescence under visualization with fluorescent light. The transformants showing high expression of the gfp gene had the normal mycelia pigmentation altered, displaying a bright green-yellowish color, visible with the naked eye on the plates, without the aid of any kind of fluorescent light or special filter set.     

Stable nuclear transformation of the diatom Chaetoceros sp.

A nuclear transformation system for the centric diatom Chaetoceros sp. has been established using two plasmids pTpfcp/nat and pTpNR/green fluorescent protein (GFP) that had been used for Thalassiosira pseudonana transformation. These contain the nourseothricin resistance gene (nat) with the fucoxanthin chlorophyll a/c binding protein (fcp) promoter/terminator from T. pseudonana and the enhanced green fluorescent protein gene (egfp), with the nitrate reductase (NR) promoter/terminator from T. pseudonana, respectively. Transformants were recovered in the presence of the antibiotic nourseothricin. One to four copies of both nat and egfp genes were integrated into genomic DNA of the transformants. Transformation efficiency was 1.5–6.0 transformants per 10⁸ cells. This work is the first report of stable genetic transformation of Chaetoceros, which is important as not only a constituent member of marine ecosystem but also feed for aquaculture.     

Use of green fluorescent protein for detection of transformed shoots and homozygous offspring

 Using tobacco as a model system, the data obtained demonstrated that the green fluorescent protein (GFP) can be used as a visual selection marker for transformed tissues. Based on differences in the intensity of GFP fluorescence, homozygous and hemizygous states could be easily visualized in seeds and seedlings of the T1 generation. These results were confirmed by genetic analysis. Optimized conditions for GFP analysis of stable transformants are presented. Received: 9 February 1999 / Revision received: 26 April 1999 / Accepted: 19 May 1999     

L-Nucleosides as chemotherapeutic agents

A genetic transformation system has been developed for three Mycosphaerella pathogens of banana and plantain (Musa spp.). Mycosphaerella fijiensis and Mycosphaerella musicola, the causal agents of black and yellow Sigatoka, respectively, and Mycosphaerella eumusae, which causes Septoria leaf spot of banana, were transformed with a construct carrying a synthetic gene encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP). Most single-spored transformants that expressed GFP constitutively were mitotically stable in the absence of selection for hygromycin B resistance. Transformants of all three species were pathogenic on the susceptible banana cultivar Grand Nain, and growth in planta was comparable to wild-type strains. GFP expression by transformants allowed us to observe extensive fungal growth within leaf tissue that eventually turned necrotic, at which point the fungi grew saprophytically on the dead tissue. Leaf chlorosis and necrosis were often observed in advance of saprophytic growth of the mycelium on necrotic tissue, which supports previous reports suggesting secretion of a phytotoxin.