Preliminary biomedical evaluation of wild ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata and V. rubra)

Complete medical examinations were performed on 11 wild ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata and V. rubra) from three sites in Madagascar. Each animal received a complete physical examination, several physiological parameters were analyzed (complete blood count, serum biochemical profile, and fecal bacterial culture), and the animals were examined for endo-, ecto-, and hemoparasites. Additional tests were performed as samples were available, including fat-soluble vitamin analysis, trace mineral analysis, toxoplasmosis serology, and viral serology. We found that the ruffed lemurs were in good health, harbored a low endoparasite load, and frequently had external parasites (e.g., ticks (Haemophysalis lemuris)). Statistically significant differences between captive and wild lemurs were found for the following serum biochemical and blood count parameters: alanine aminotransferase (ALT), total protein (TP), albumin, blood urea nitrogen, cholesterol, glucose, amylase, band neutrophil count, and eosinophil count. Low blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum cholesterol values in wild lemurs (compared to those of North American captive zoo ruffed lemurs) may suggest differences between diets in the wild and captivity.     

Gastrointestinal parasites of the grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus, Temminck 1827) on the Accra Plains of Ghana

The gastrointestinal parasites of the grasscutter were investigated between 1996 and 2006 using 180 grasscutters from the Accra Plains. The aim of the study was to develop strategies for the control of the parasites under captive management. The gastrointestinal tracts of the animals were examined for the presence of both helminth and protozoan parasites with the aid of a hand lens, the direct smear and Willis Flotation techniques. In all, fourteen species of helminths were found including twelve nematodes and two cestodes. Trichuris muris was the most common nematode encountered, whilst Hepatocola hepatica was the least commonly encountered nematode. Three genera of protozoans, viz, Trichomonas spp, Giardia spp and Eimeria spp were also encountered, with Giardia spp and Trichomonas spp being reported for the first time in the grasscutter. Eimeria spp were the most prevalent protozoa. The widespread occurrence of protozoal and helminthic parasites in the grasscutter suggests that routine treatment of grasscutters with coccidiostats, anti-flagellates and anthelminthics such as dimetridazole and albendazole may contribute significantly to improve productivity of animals and reduce the pressure on wild populations.     

The prevalence and diversity of intestinal parasitic infections in humans and domestic animals in a rural Cambodian village

In Cambodia, intestinal parasitic infections are prevalent in humans and particularly in children. Yet, information on potentially zoonotic parasites in animal reservoir hosts is lacking. In May 2012, faecal samples from 218 humans, 94 dogs and 76 pigs were collected from 67 households in Dong village, Preah Vihear province, Cambodia. Faecal samples were examined microscopically using sodium nitrate and zinc sulphate flotation methods, the Baermann method, Koga Agar plate culture, formalin-ether concentration technique and Kato Katz technique. PCR was used to confirm hookworm, Ascaris spp., Giardia spp. and Blastocystis spp. Major gastrointestinal parasitic infections found in humans included hookworms (63.3%), Entamoeba spp. (27.1%) and Strongyloides stercoralis (24.3%). In dogs, hookworm (80.8%), Spirometra spp. (21.3%) and Strongyloides spp. (14.9%) were most commonly detected and in pigs Isospora suis (75.0%), Oesophagostomum spp. (73.7%) and Entamoeba spp. (31.6%) were found. Eleven parasite species were detected in dogs (eight helminths and three protozoa), seven of which have zoonotic potential, including hookworm, Strongyloides spp., Trichuris spp., Toxocara canis, Echinostoma spp., Giardia duodenalis and Entamoeba spp. Five of the parasite species detected in pigs also have zoonotic potential, including Ascaris spp., Trichuris spp., Capillaria spp., Balantidium coli and Entamoeba spp. Further molecular epidemiological studies will aid characterisation of parasite species and genotypes and allow further insight into the potential for zoonotic cross transmission of parasites in this community.     

The changing ecology of primate parasites: Insights from wild‐captive comparisons

Host movements, including migrations or range expansions, are known to influence parasite communities. Transitions to captivity—a rarely studied yet widespread human‐driven host movement—can also change parasite communities, in some cases leading to pathogen spillover among wildlife species, or between wildlife and human hosts. We compared parasite species richness between wild and captive populations of 22 primate species, including macro‐ (helminths and arthropods) and micro‐parasites (viruses, protozoa, bacteria, and fungi). We predicted that captive primates would have only a subset of their native parasite community, and would possess fewer parasites with complex life cycles requiring intermediate hosts or vectors. We further predicted that captive primates would have parasites transmitted by close contact and environmentally—including those shared with humans and other animals, such as commensals and pests. We found that the composition of primate parasite communities shifted in captive populations, especially because of turnover (parasites detected in captivity but not reported in the wild), but with some evidence of nestedness (holdovers from the wild). Because of the high degree of turnover, we found no significant difference in overall parasite richness between captive and wild primates. Vector‐borne parasites were less likely to be found in captivity, whereas parasites transmitted through either close or non‐close contact, including through fecal‐oral transmission, were more likely to be newly detected in captivity. These findings identify parasites that require monitoring in captivity and raise concerns about the introduction of novel parasites to potentially susceptible wildlife populations during reintroduction programs.     

Differences in prevalence of parasites in stool samples between three distinct ethnic pediatric populations in southern Israel, 2007–2011

Intestinal parasites cause significant morbidity worldwide, particularly in developing populations. At least three pediatric populations reside in southern Israel: the Bedouin population, the general Jewish population and Jewish children of Ethiopian origin. Our aim was to compare intestinal parasite prevalence between the three pediatric populations in southern Israel.This is a retrospective, laboratory, population-based surveillance. Most ova and parasite (O&P) tests in southern Israel (hospital and community obtained) are performed by the hospital parasitology laboratory. All pediatric stool O&P tests examined by the hospital laboratory between 2007 and 2011 were included.Overall, 45,978 samples were examined; 27,354, 16,969 and 1655 from Bedouin, non-Ethiopian Jewish and Ethiopian children, respectively. 16,317 parasites were identified in 12,325 (26.8%) positive samples. Total prevalences were 36%, 11% and 46% for Bedouin, non-Ethiopian Jewish and Ethiopian children, respectively.Blastocystis hominis, Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba species were the most common parasites identified, constituting ≥ 80% of positive samples in all groups. Hymenolepis nana was rarely identified in non-Ethiopian Jewish children (0.04% of isolates compared with 2.6% and 0.5% in Bedouin and Ethiopian children, respectively). Other helminths, excluding H. nana and Enterobius vermicularis, were identified almost exclusively in Ethiopian children ≥ 5 years of age.In conclusion, the Bedouin and Ethiopian children were characterized by higher parasite prevalence in stool, compared with the non-Ethiopian Jewish children, probably reflecting higher intestinal parasitic disease rates. Certain helminthic infections were identified almost exclusively in the Ethiopian children. These differences may be associated with lifestyle differences between the three populations.     

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in five marine mammal species

Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. are protozoan parasites that are often associated with severe diarrheal disease in a variety of mammals. Although these parasites have been extensively studied in terrestrial ecosystems, little is known about either parasite in the marine environment. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of both Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in 5 marine mammal species. Fecal samples were collected from 39 bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus), 49 North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis), 31 ringed seals (Phoca hispida), 22 bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus), and 18 beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) between 1998 and 2003. Using an immunofluorescent assay, parasites were detected in the feces of bowhead whales, right whales, and ringed seals, while neither parasite was detected in samples from bearded seals or beluga whales. Overall, prevalences were highest in ringed seals (Cryptosporidium spp., 22.6%; Giardia spp., 64.5%) and right whales (Cryptosporidium spp., 24.5%; Giardia spp., 71.4%) and lowest in bowhead whales (Cryptosporidium spp., 5.1%; Giardia spp., 33.3%). To our knowledge, this is the first report of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in either whale species and of Cryptosporidium spp. in the ringed seal.     

Assessing flavivirus, lentivirus, and herpesvirus exposure in free-ranging ring-tailed lemurs in southwestern Madagascar

The ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) is an endangered species found in southwestern Madagascar, and understanding infectious disease susceptibility is an essential step towards the preservation of wild and captive lemur populations. Lemurs are primates that are widely dispersed throughout the island of Madagascar and may serve as hosts or reservoirs for zoonotic infections. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of antibodies to West Nile virus (WNV), simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), and herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) in a population of free-ranging ring-tailed lemur from the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. Samples were collected from 50 animals during field capture studies in June and July 2004 and assayed for presence of viral antibodies during the 12 mo following collection. Forty-seven of the 50 lemurs sampled had antibodies against WNV detectable by epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In addition, 50 of 50 samples had titers against WNV ranging from 80 to > or = 1,280 using plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT(90)). Ten lemurs had antibodies against lentiviral antigens as determined by Western blot analysis. None of the lemurs had antibodies against HSV-1 using ELISA.     

Variation in dental wear and tooth loss among known‐aged,older ring‐tailed lemurs (Lemur catta): a comparison between wild and captive individuals

Tooth wear is generally an age‐related phenomenon, often assumed to occur at similar rates within populations of primates and other mammals, and has been suggested as a correlate of reduced offspring survival among wild lemurs. Few long‐term wild studies have combined detailed study of primate behavior and ecology with dental analyses. Here, we present data on dental wear and tooth loss in older (>10 years old) wild and captive ring‐tailed lemurs (Lemur catta). Among older ring‐tailed lemurs at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve (BMSR), Madagascar (n=6), the percentage of severe dental wear and tooth loss ranges from 6 to 50%. Among these six individuals, the oldest (19 years old) exhibits the second lowest frequency of tooth loss (14%). The majority of captive lemurs at the Indianapolis Zoo (n=7) are older than the oldest BMSR lemur, yet display significantly less overall tooth wear for 19 of 36 tooth positions, with only two individuals exhibiting antemortem tooth loss. Among the captive lemurs, only one lemur (a nearly 29 year old male) has lost more than one tooth. This individual is only missing anterior teeth, in contrast to lemurs at BMSR, where the majority of lost teeth are postcanine teeth associated with processing specific fallback foods. Postcanine teeth also show significantly more overall wear at BMSR than in the captive sample. At BMSR, degree of severe wear and tooth loss varies in same aged, older individuals, likely reflecting differences in microhabitat, and thus the availability and use of different foods. This pattern becomes apparent before “old age,” as seen in individuals as young as 7 years. Among the four “older” female lemurs at BMSR, severe wear and/or tooth loss do not predict offspring survival. Am. J. Primatol. 72:1026–1037, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Small rodents and other mammals associated with mountain meadows as reservoirs of Giardia spp. and Campylobacter spp

Sixty-five percent (469 of 722) of the fecal samples collected from small rodents in the central Washington Cascade mountains were positive for Giardia spp. Trapping studies showed that microtines of the genus Microtus were heavily infected with the parasite. Morphologically the cysts and trophozoites were of the Giardia duodenalis type. Small-rodent populations appear to maintain their infection throughout the year. Our data suggest that there is no difference in the percentage of positive animals in areas receiving a lot of human use as opposed to animals in those areas receiving very little or no human use. Giardia spp. were also found in elk and beaver fecal samples. Campylobacter spp. were recovered infrequently from the small rodents inhabiting alpine meadows. Of 551 specimens cultured, less than 1% were positive for the bacterium, and the isolates were identified as Campylobacter coli. Water voles were susceptible to a human isolate of Campylobacter jejuni and shed the bacterium for several weeks. C. jejuni was also isolated from a bear fecal sample collected from a protected watershed. Our studies indicate that microtines and possibly other small rodents inhabiting mountain meadows have a potential to act as a reservoir for both Giardia spp. and Campylobacter spp. Because these animals may carry human pathogens, they should be included in animal surveys designed to assess the health risks associated with mountain watersheds.     

Intestinal Parasites in Gorillas,Chimpanzees, and Humans at Mondika Research Site,Dzanga-Ndoki National Park,Central African Republic

We report prevalences and eggs/protozoa per g (EPG; PPG) of helminths and protozoa in gorillas, chimpanzees, agile mangabeys, indigenous Ba'Aka and Bantu, and western researchers at a remote field site in the Central African Republic. We examined fecal samples for eggs, larvae, proglottids, cysts, amoeba, trophozoites, and flagellates. For helminths, strongylates were most prevalent, infecting 82–94% of nonhuman primates (NH) and 30–93% of human (H) groups, followed by ascaroids (14–88% NH; 0–15% H), and threadworms (0–22% NH; 0–29% H). For protozoa, Entamoeba histolytica (2–100% NH; 33–52% H) and trichomonads (11–88% NH; 0–54% H) were most prevalent. Among gorilla samples (n = 156) there were significant age/sex differences in EPG/PPG for strongylates, threadworms, Entamoeba histolytica, and trichomonads, with infants exhibiting the highest mean EPG/PPG for all parasites except trichomonads. Between group analyses revealed that the Ba'Aka had significantly higher mean EPG of strongylates, ascaroids and threadworms than all other primate groups, except the mangabeys. For Entamoeba histolytica, E. coli, Balantidium coli, and Iodamoeba butschlii, the agile mangabeys had significantly higher mean PPG than other groups; for trichomonads, the chimpanzees, and mangabeys had the highest mean PPG. Relative to other African ape sites, the gorillas and chimpanzees at Mondika appear to have high prevalences of intestinal parasites. This may be the result of the high proportion of swamp and seasonally flooded areas, which provide optimal viability for parasite eggs and ova. At Mondika, the significantly higher parasite levels of Ba'Aka probably result from more traditional methods of hygiene and lack of available medical treatment. All workers at research sites should be monitored and treated to minimize cross-transmission between humans and local fauna.     

Small rodents and other mammals associated with mountain meadows as reservoirs of Giardia spp. and Campylobacter spp.

Sixty-five percent (469 of 722) of the fecal samples collected from small rodents in the central Washington Cascade mountains were positive for Giardia spp. Trapping studies showed that microtines of the genus Microtus were heavily infected with the parasite. Morphologically the cysts and trophozoites were of the Giardia duodenalis type. Small-rodent populations appear to maintain their infection throughout the year. Our data suggest that there is no difference in the percentage of positive animals in areas receiving a lot of human use as opposed to animals in those areas receiving very little or no human use. Giardia spp. were also found in elk and beaver fecal samples. Campylobacter spp. were recovered infrequently from the small rodents inhabiting alpine meadows. Of 551 specimens cultured, less than 1% were positive for the bacterium, and the isolates were identified as Campylobacter coli. Water voles were susceptible to a human isolate of Campylobacter jejuni and shed the bacterium for several weeks. C. jejuni was also isolated from a bear fecal sample collected from a protected watershed. Our studies indicate that microtines and possibly other small rodents inhabiting mountain meadows have a potential to act as a reservoir for both Giardia spp. and Campylobacter spp. Because these animals may carry human pathogens, they should be included in animal surveys designed to assess the health risks associated with mountain watersheds.     

Gastrointestinal Parasites of Indigenous and Introduced Primate Species of Rubondo Island National Park,Tanzania

Translocation programs releasing animals into the wild need to assess the potential risks associated with the exchange of parasites and other pathogens between native and translocated species. We assessed the composition of the parasite communities in sympatric native and introduced primates. Over a 3-yr period we monitored the gastrointestinal parasites of 3 primate species living in the isolated ecosystem of Rubondo Island National Park, Tanzania: translocated chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and guerezas (Colobus guereza) and the indigenous vervets (Chlorocebus aethiops pygerythrus). We detected Troglodytella abrassarti and Enterobius cf. anthropopitheci only in chimpanzees and Chilomastix mesnili in chimpanzees and guerezas. In vervets, we recorded Anatrichosoma sp. and Subulura sp., previously reported in Rubondo chimpanzees. We found Blastocystis sp., Giardia sp., Iodamoeba buetschlii, Entamoeba coli, Entamoeba spp., Trichuris sp., Strongyloides spp., spirurids (cf. Protospirura muricola), and undetermined strongylids in all 3 primate species. Considering the absence of Protospirura muricola in other wild populations of chimpanzees and guerezas, it has probably been acquired from the native vervets, as have Anatrichosoma sp. and Subulura sp. Lower parasite load in Rubondo chimpanzees, in comparison with wild populations at other study sites of this species, might be due to their stay in captivity in Europe before being released on the island. Despite a lack of any apparent health problems from infections in introduced Rubondo primates, parasite monitoring during reintroduction/introduction projects is necessary to decrease potential risks resulting from the exchange of parasites between translocated and native species.     

Status of intestinal parasite infections among children in Bat Dambang, Cambodia

A survey was conducted to determine the extent of intestinal parasite infection in Bat Dambang, Cambodia in March 2004. A total of 623 fecal specimens was collected from kindergarten and schoolchildren and examined using the formalin-ether sedimentation technique. The overall infection rate of intestinal parasites was 25.7% (boys, 26.2%; girls, 25.1%), and the infection rates of intestinal helminthes by species were as follows: Echinostoma sp. 4.8%, hookworm 3.4%, Hymenolepis nana 1.3%, and Rhabditis sp. 1.3%. The infection rates of intestinal protozoa were; Entamoeba coli 4.8%, Giardia lamblia 2.9%, Iodamoeba butschlii 1.4%, Entamoeba polecki 1.1%, and Entamoeba histolytica 0.8%. There were no egg positive cases of Ascaris lumbricoides or Trichuris trichiura. All children infected were treated with albendazole, praziquantel, or metronidazole according to parasite species. The results showed that intestinal parasites are highly endemic in Bat Dambang, Cambodia.     

Inbreeding depression in ring-tailed lemurs (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lemur catta</Emphasis>): genetic diversity predicts parasitism,immunocompetence, and survivorship

The consequences of inbreeding have been well studied in a variety of taxa, revealing that inbreeding has major negative impacts in numerous species, both in captivity and in the wild; however, as trans-generational health data are difficult to obtain for long-lived, free-ranging species, similar analyses are generally lacking for nonhuman primates. Here, we examined the long-term effects of inbreeding on numerous health estimates in a captive colony of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), housed under semi-natural conditions. This vulnerable strepsirrhine primate is endemic to Madagascar, a threatened hotspot of biodiversity; consequently, this captive population represents an important surrogate. Despite significant attention to maintaining the genetic diversity of captive animals, breeding colonies invariably suffer from various degrees of inbreeding. We used neutral heterozygosity as an estimate of inbreeding and showed that our results reflect genome-wide inbreeding, rather than local genetic effects. In particular, we found that genetic diversity affects several fitness correlates, including the prevalence and burden of Cuterebra parasites and a third (N = 6) of the blood parameters analyzed, some of which reflect immunocompetence. As a final validation of inbreeding depression in this captive colony, we showed that, compared to outbred individuals, inbred lemurs were more likely to die earlier from diseases. Through these analyses, we highlight the importance of monitoring genetic variation in captive animals—a key objective for conservation geneticists—and provide insight into the potential negative consequences faced by small or isolated populations in the wild. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Bacterial, viral and parasitic enteric pathogens associated with acute diarrhea in hospitalized children from northern Jordan

To determine the etiology of acute diarrhea in Jordanian children under 5 years of age, we examined stool samples from 265 children admitted to the pediatric ward at Princess Rahma Hospital for Children, Irbid, Jordan, for parasites, rotavirus and enteric bacteria. Using both traditional and molecular diagnostic techniques, we detected enteropathogens in 66.4% of patients with diarrhea. A single enteric pathogen was detected in 50.9% of the children, and multiple pathogens were detected in 15.5%. The prevalence of enteropathogens identified was as follows: rotavirus (32.5%), enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (12.8%), enteroaggregative E. coli (10.2), enterotoxigenic E. coli (5.7%), Shigella spp. (4.9%), Entamoeba histolytica (4.9%), Salmonella spp. (4.5%), Campylobacter jejuni/coli (1.5%), Cryptosporidium spp. (1.5%), enteroinvasive E. coli (1.5%), eae-, Ehly-positive E. coli (0.8%), Giardia lamblia (0. 8%) and Yersinia enterocolitica (0.4%). No Vibrio cholerae, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli, microsporidia, adenovirus or small round virus were detected. Findings from this study demonstrate that rotavirus and several types of diarrheagenic E. coli, which are not screened for during routine examinations of stool samples in public health laboratories, were the most frequently detected enteropathogens in these children. Our findings highlight the value of using a combination of traditional and molecular techniques in the diagnosis of diarrheal disease in this population.     

Prevalence and lineage diversity of avian haemosporidians from three distinct cerrado habitats in Brazil

Habitat alteration can disrupt host-parasite interactions and lead to the emergence of new diseases in wild populations. The cerrado habitat of Brazil is being fragmented and degraded rapidly by agriculture and urbanization. We screened 676 wild birds from three habitats (intact cerrado, disturbed cerrado and transition area Amazonian rainforest-cerrado) for the presence of haemosporidian parasites (Plasmodium and Haemoproteus) to determine whether different habitats were associated with differences in the prevalence and diversity of infectious diseases in natural populations. Twenty one mitochondrial lineages, including 11 from Plasmodium and 10 from Haemoproteus were identified. Neither prevalence nor diversity of infections by Plasmodium spp. or Haemoproteus spp. differed significantly among the three habitats. However, 15 of the parasite lineages had not been previously described and might be restricted to these habitats or to the region. Six haemosporidian lineages previously known from other regions, particularly the Caribbean Basin, comprised 50-80% of the infections in each of the samples, indicating a regional relationship between parasite distribution and abundance.     

Metabarcoding Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Sympatric Endemic and Nonendemic Species in Ranomafana National Park,Madagascar

Sympatric species are known to host the same parasites species. Nevertheless, surveys examining parasite assemblages in sympatric species are rare. To understand how parasite assemblages in sympatric host species differ in a given locality, we used a noninvasive identification method based on high-throughput sequencing. We collected fecal samples from sympatric species in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar, from September to December in 2010, 2011, and 2012 and identified their parasites by metabarcoding, sequencing a region of the small ribosomal subunit (18S) gene. Our survey included 11 host species, including endemic primates, rodents, frogs, gastropods, and nonendemic rats and dogs. We collected 872 samples, of which 571 contained nematodes and 249 were successfully sequenced. We identified nine putative species of parasites, although their correspondence to actual parasite species is not clear as the resolution of the marker gene differs between nematode clades. For the host species that we successfully sampled with 10 or more positive occurrences of nematodes, i.e., mouse lemurs (Microcebus rufus), black rats (Rattus rattus), and frogs (Anura), the parasite assemblage compositions differed significantly among host species, sampling sites, and sampling years. Our metabarcoding method shows promise in interrogating parasite assemblages in sympatric host species and our results emphasize the importance of choosing marker regions for parasite identification accuracy.     

A multiyear survey of helminths from wild saddleback (Leontocebus weddelli) and emperor (Saguinus imperator) tamarins

The establishment of baseline data on parasites from wild primates is essential to understand how changes in habitat or climatic disturbances will impact parasite–host relationships. In nature, multiparasitic infections of primates usually fluctuate temporally and seasonally, implying that the acquisition of reliable data must occur over time. Individual parasite infection data from two wild populations of New World primates, the saddleback (Leontocebus weddelli) and emperor (Saguinus imperator) tamarin, were collected over 3 years to establish baseline levels of helminth prevalence and parasite species richness (PSR). Secondarily, we explored variation in parasite prevalence across age and sex classes, test nonrandom associations of parasite co‐occurrence, and assess the relationship between group size and PSR. From 288 fecal samples across 105 individuals (71 saddleback and 34 emperor tamarins), 10 parasite taxa were identified by light microscopy following centrifugation and ethyl‐acetate sedimentation. Of these taxa, none were host‐specific, Dicrocoeliidae and Cestoda prevalences differed between host species, Prosthenorchis and Strongylida were the most prevalent. Host age was positively associated with Prosthenorchis ova and filariform larva, but negatively with cestode and the Rhabditoidea ova. We detected no differences between expected and observed levels of co‐infection, nor between group size and parasite species richness over 30 group‐years. Logistic models of individual infection status did not identify a sex bias; however, age and species predicted the presence of four and three parasite taxa, respectively, with saddleback tamarins exhibiting higher PSR. Now that we have reliable baseline data for future monitoring of these populations, next steps involve the molecular characterization of these parasites, and exploration of linkages with health parameters.     

Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. in filtered drinking water supplies.

Giardia and Cryptosporidium levels were determined by using a combined immunofluorescence test for filtered drinking water samples collected from 66 surface water treatment plants in 14 states and 1 Canadian province. Giardia cysts were detected in 17% of the 83 filtered water effluents. Cryptosporidium oocysts, were observed in 27% of the drinking water samples. Overall, cysts or oocysts were found in 39% of the treated effluent samples. Despite the frequent detection of parasites in drinking water, microscopic observations of the cysts and oocysts suggested that most of the organisms were nonviable. Compliance with the filtration criteria outlined by the Surface Water Treatment Rule of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency did not ensure that treated water was free of cysts and oocysts. The average plant effluent turbidity for sites which were parasite positive was 0.19 nephelometric turbidity units. Of sites that were positive for Giardia or Cryptosporidium spp., 78% would have been able to meet the turbidity regulations of the Surface Water Temperature Rule. Evaluation of the data by using a risk assessment model developed for Giardia spp. showed that 24% of the utilities examined would not meet a 1/10,000 annual risk of Giardia infection. For cold water conditions (0.5 degree C), 46% of the plants would not achieve the 1/10,000 risk level.     

Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. in filtered drinking water supplies.

Giardia and Cryptosporidium levels were determined by using a combined immunofluorescence test for filtered drinking water samples collected from 66 surface water treatment plants in 14 states and 1 Canadian province. Giardia cysts were detected in 17% of the 83 filtered water effluents. Cryptosporidium oocysts, were observed in 27% of the drinking water samples. Overall, cysts or oocysts were found in 39% of the treated effluent samples. Despite the frequent detection of parasites in drinking water, microscopic observations of the cysts and oocysts suggested that most of the organisms were nonviable. Compliance with the filtration criteria outlined by the Surface Water Treatment Rule of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency did not ensure that treated water was free of cysts and oocysts. The average plant effluent turbidity for sites which were parasite positive was 0.19 nephelometric turbidity units. Of sites that were positive for Giardia or Cryptosporidium spp., 78% would have been able to meet the turbidity regulations of the Surface Water Temperature Rule. Evaluation of the data by using a risk assessment model developed for Giardia spp. showed that 24% of the utilities examined would not meet a 1/10,000 annual risk of Giardia infection. For cold water conditions (0.5 degree C), 46% of the plants would not achieve the 1/10,000 risk level.