积雪草对转染TGF-β1基因的大鼠肾小球系膜细胞Smad 2/3、Smad 7和胶原蛋白Ⅳ表达的影响

目的：通过细胞转基因技术,获得稳定表达转化生长因子β1（TGF-β1）的系膜细胞（MC）克隆,观察积雪草（CA）对Smad 2/3、Smad 7和胶原蛋白1V表达及Smad 2/3磷酸化的影响。方法：采用脂质体的方法将TGF-β1表达质粒转入MC细胞,采用G418筛选并建立稳定表达TGF-β1的细胞株。将MC细胞株分为3组：对照组（未转染TGFβ1的MC+RPMI 1640+10%正常大鼠血清）,TGF-β1转染组（稳定表达TGF-β1的MC+RPMI 1640+10%正常大鼠血清）,积雪草（CA）组：稳定表达TGF-β1的MC+RPMI 1640+10%含高浓度CA的大鼠血清。实验重复5次。ELISA法检测各组培养上清中TGF-β1和胶原Ⅳ的含量;RT-PCR方法检测各组细胞TGF-β1、Smad 2/3、Smad 7的mRNA表达水平;Western印迹法检测各组细胞TGF-β1、Smad 2/3、p-Smad 2/3、Smad 7、胶原Ⅳ的蛋白质水平。结果：TGF-β1转染组细胞上清液中的TGF-β1和胶原蛋白Ⅳ水平显著升高,积雪草能显著降低TGF-β1和胶原蛋白Ⅳ水平;TGF-β1转染组细胞中TGF-β1、Smad 2/3的mRNA和蛋白质表达水平及Smad 2/3的磷酸化水平均显著升高,而CA可显著降低MC细胞中TGF-β1、Smad 2/3的mRNA和蛋白质表达水平及Smad 2/3的磷酸化水平;TGF-β1转染组细胞中的Smad 7 mRNA水平显著降低,而CA能使Smad 7的mRNA水平显著升高。结论：稳定表达TGF-β1的MC细胞能激活TGFβ1/Smad信号通路,并引起胶原蛋白Ⅳ表达增加,而CA通过抑制此通路的激活,进而抑制胶原蛋白Ⅳ的表达而减缓糖尿病肾病（DN）的发生。     

BMP2具有诱导C3H10T1/2细胞成脂肪分化的能力

探讨骨形态发生蛋白2（BMP2）诱导鼠胚胎间充质干细胞C3H10T1/2成脂肪分化能力,为临床脂肪代谢疾病的治疗提供理论基础．培养多潜能的间充质干细胞C3H10T1/2,用20 μg/ml BMP2对其诱导一定时间后,RT-PCR检测是否存在BMP信号通路中关键分子BMP受体BMPR I, BMPR Ⅱ及Smad 1/5/8的表达.Western印迹检测Smad 蛋白及MAPK 信号通路中p38磷酸化水平变化,QRT PCR检测成脂肪标志基因aP2以及成脂肪相关转录因子PPARγ,C/EBPα,C/EBPβ表达水平,同时用油红O染色,观测C3H10T1/2细胞成脂肪分化情况．经BMP2诱导后,C3H10T1/2细胞成脂肪分化标志(油红O染色)显著增加,Smad 蛋白及p38磷酸化水平有所上升,同时成脂肪标志基因aP2以及成脂肪相关转录因子PPARγ,C/EBPα,C/EBPβ表达水平各有一定程度提高．BMP2具有诱导C3H10T1/2细胞成脂肪分化能力,其成脂肪分化呈现对BMP2作用的时间依赖性．     

Smad蛋白信号网络

Smad蛋白家族是近年来发现的新的细胞内信号转导蛋白,哺乳类中共发现了有8种不同的Smad蛋白,可分为3个不同的亚族：R—Smad、Co—Smad和I—Smad。Smad蛋白在TGF—β超家族成员的信号转导中具有重要的作用。TGF—β超家族的二聚配体与细胞膜表面的Ⅱ和I型丝氨酸／苏氨酸激酶受体结合形成异四聚复合体。活化后的I型受体使R—Smad磷酸化,磷酸化的R—Smad与Co—Smad形成异聚复合体,进入细胞核,与其它转录协同子和抑制子共同调节靶基因的转录。此外,Smad蛋白还与其官信号通路相互作用。     

敲低低密度脂蛋白受体相关蛋白1抑制C3H10T1/2多潜能干细胞定向成脂

C3H10T1/2多潜能干细胞成脂过程分为定向和分化两个阶段,骨形成蛋白4(BMP4)可以诱导其定向成前脂肪细胞．已有的研究表明,脂肪组织特异性敲除低密度脂蛋白受体相关蛋白1(Lrp1)的小鼠体重减轻,脂肪组织含量减少,揭示此基因对成脂具有重要作用．然而,目前尚不清楚Lrp1是否在成脂定向过程中发挥作用．采用小干扰RNA技术(RNAi),在体外水平研究低密度脂蛋白Lrp1对C3H10T1/2多潜能干细胞成脂定向的作用．分别在C3H10T1/2成脂的定向期和脂滴成熟期敲低Lrp1,通过显微镜下观察、油红O染色、Western blotting等实验证实,定向期而非脂滴成熟期敲低Lrp1显著抑制C3H10T1/2多潜能干细胞成脂．BMP4通过激活下游Smad1/5/8信号通路发挥作用,而敲低Lrp1显著抑制BMP4诱导的Smad1/5/8磷酸化．这些结果说明：敲低Lrp1通过下调Smad信号通路,抑制BMP4诱导的C3H10T1/2多潜能干细胞成脂定向．     

Gli1与β-catenin相互作用促进二者在结肠癌细胞中的协同核输入

Wnt信号通路和Hedgehog（Hh）信号通路在胚胎和干细胞的发育中发挥重要作用.此外,这两条信号途径在结肠癌复发和浸润的过程也至关重要.然而,Wnt信号通路、Hedgehog信号通路二者之间具体的交互作用机制目前仍不清楚.本文发现,这两条途径的关键分子Gli1和β-联蛋白之间存在蛋白质相互作用.Gli1与β-联蛋白之间的分子相互作用有助于二者的核输入.同时发现,在肠癌细胞系中,Gli1与β-联蛋白协同上调表达. LiCl激活细胞Wnt信号通路使Gli1表达水平增加, RNA干扰抑制Wnt信号通路,Gli1的表达水平下降.同时,Gli1的过表达也提高了细胞内β-联蛋白的表达水平,并且用Hedgehog信号通路抑制剂GANT61处理细胞,降低Gli1的表达后细胞内β 联蛋白的表达相应下降.本研究揭示了Gli1 和 β-联蛋白的相互作用及二者协助核输入在Wnt、Hedgehog信号通路交互调节中发挥重要作用,Wnt、Hedgehog信号通路交互作用为大肠癌发生发展研究提供了细胞水平交互调控机制.     

β-arrestin的生物学研究进展

β-arrestin 1和2是一类介导受体脱敏的重要可溶性蛋白质,对绝大部分与受体偶联G蛋白介导的信号转导具有重要调节作用,在G蛋白偶联受体(G protein-coupled receptors, GPCRs)脱敏、内化、复敏、细胞增殖反应和基因转录中具有重要地位.对β-arrestin介导的复杂信号通路的研究将揭示它们的调节功能对人类健康的影响,有助于开发新一代影响GPCRs的药物.     

脂筏在G蛋白偶联受体信号转导中的调控作用

脂筏是细胞上富含特殊脂质和蛋白质的微结构域.随着脂筏作为细胞膜上信号传导的平台的认识,这个特征化的区域受到了越来越多的关注.大量的研究已经显示脂筏参与G蛋白偶联受体信号转导的调控.通过精细的调节G蛋白偶联受体、G蛋白和下游信号效应物等信号元件的活性,脂筏可以影响信号转导的专一性和信号偶联的效率.本综述主要介绍脂筏对G蛋白偶联受体信号转导的调控机制的研究进展.     

c-Jun/激活蛋白-1活性调节研究进展

转录因子激活蛋白-1(AP-1)对细胞增殖、细胞存活与细胞凋亡等重要生理过程具有调控作用,其核心组成成分是c-Jun.c-Jun活性从转录调控、翻译后调控（主要是磷酸化调节）和相互作用蛋白质调节等三个水平受到正负向调控.其分子内8个位点可被JNK1、GSK3、CKII、Abl等激酶磷酸化.通过N端的转录激活结构域和C端的碱性亮氨酸拉链区,c-Jun可与bZIP类转录因子、辅助激活因子和其他一些蛋白质直接相互作用而被调控.另外一些分子可通过CBP、JAB1等重要辅助激活因子的介导间接调控AP-1的活性,共同构成AP-1活性调节的复杂网络.     

β-arrestin和信号转导

β-arrestin是一类重要的信号调控蛋白和支架蛋白（scaffold）。在G蛋白偶联受体（G-protein-OOU-piedreceptor,GPCR）信号转导中,β-arrestin不但可以作为GPCR信号的负性调控分子,还能作为支架蛋白促进GPCR对其他信号通路的激活,如有丝分裂原激活蛋白激酶（mitogen-activated protein kinase,MAPK）途径。另外β-arrestin还能与转录因子调节蛋白,如IKB和Mdm2相互作用问接调节NF-κB和P53介导的转录。     

泛素－蛋白水解酶复合体通路对Smad通路的调节

Smad通路是转化生长因子—β(TGF—β)胞外信号自跨膜受体向核内传递的信号通路。Smads最终与靶基因启动子结合,完成TGF—β对核内基因转录的调控作用。泛素—蛋白水解酶复合体通路(UPP)是参与众多细胞生理事件的重要蛋白水解途径。Smad通路的适时关闭是完成Smads正确转录调控功能的重要机制。近3年的最新研究发现了降解Smads及Smad通路调节蛋白的泛素连接酶新成员,如Smurf1、Smurf2、SCF／Roc1、SIAH1、UbcH5等,从而证明Smad通路的关闭和调节通过UPP实现。本文首次综述了UPP对Smad通路的调节机制。     

p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Affects Transforming Growth Factor-β/Smad Signaling in Human Dental Pulp Cells

Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) plays an essential role in differentiation of dental pulp cells into odontoblasts during reparative dentine formation. However, the mechanism by which TGF-β stimulates dental repair remains rather obscure. Human dental pulp cells were used as an in vitro model in the present work. We showed that TGF-β signaled through mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), such as ERK1/2 and p38, along with Smad pathway. Distinct pathways exerted different time response. SB203580, a specific p38 MAPK inhibitor, reduced phosphorylation of Smad3, while it slightly enhanced phosphorylation of Smad2. Increased phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and p38 confirmed that SB203580 did not block activation of TGF-β receptors. In addition, the inhibition of ERK1/2 activity with MEK1/2 inhibitor U0126 increased TGF-β mediated phosphorylation of Smad3. Our results suggest that p38 affects the phosphorylation of Smad2 and Smad3 differentially during TGF-β signaling in human dental pulp cells and ERK1/2 might be involved in the process.     

C18 ORF1, a Novel Negative Regulator of Transforming Growth Factor-β Signaling

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling is deliberately regulated at multiple steps in its pathway from the extracellular microenvironment to the nucleus. However, how TGF-β signaling is activated or attenuated is not fully understood. We recently identified transmembrane prostate androgen-induced RNA (TMEPAI), which is involved in a negative feedback loop of TGF-β signaling. When we searched for a family molecule(s) for TMEPAI, we found C18ORF1, which, like TMEPAI, possesses two PY motifs and one Smad-interacting motif (SIM) domain. As expected, C18ORF1 could block TGF-β signaling but not bone morphogenetic protein signaling. C18ORF1 bound to Smad2/3 via its SIM and competed with the Smad anchor for receptor activation for Smad2/3 binding to attenuate recruitment of Smad2/3 to the TGF-β type I receptor (also termed activin receptor-like kinase 5 (ALK5)), in a similar fashion to TMEPAI. Knockdown of C18ORF1 prolonged duration of TGF-β-induced Smad2 phosphorylation and concomitantly potentiated the expression of JunB, p21, and TMEPAI mRNAs induced by TGF-β. Consistently, TGF-β-induced cell migration was enhanced by the knockdown of C18ORF1. These results indicate that the inhibitory function of C18ORF1 on TGF-β signaling is similar to that of TMEPAI. However, in contrast to TMEPAI, C18ORF1 was not induced upon TGF-β signaling. Thus, we defined C18ORF1 as a surveillant of steady state TGF-β signaling, whereas TMEPAI might help C18ORF1 to inhibit TGF-β signaling in a coordinated manner when cells are stimulated with high levels of TGF-β.     

Suppression TGF-β Signaling by Phospholipase D

MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells have a survival signal generated by phospholipase D (PLD) that involves the activation of mTOR and MAP kinase. TGF-β signals that block cell cycle progression in G₁ are suppressed in MDA-MB-231 cells. We report here that the elevated PLD activity in MDA-MB-231 cells suppresses TGF-β signaling. Suppression of PLD activity or PLD expression resulted in increased phosphorylation of Smad2 and Smad3 on Ser 465/467 – sites on Smads that get phosphorylated by the TGF-β receptor and positively regulate TGF-β signaling. The effect of PLD suppression on Smad2/3 phosphorylation was dependent on the presence of TGF-β. Suppression of PLD also suppressed phosphorylation of Smad2 on Ser 245/250/255 – sites that are phosphorylated by MAP kinase and negatively regulate TGF-β signaling. Suppression of PLD also led to increased expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors p21Cip1 and p27Kip1, the expression of which is stimulated in response to TGF-β. Consistent with the elevated expression of CDK inhibitors, suppression of PLD also suppressed phosphorylation of the CDK substrate pRb. Similar effects were also seen in PANC-1 human pancreatic cancer cells. The data presented here indicate that the suppressed TGF-β signaling in MDA-MB-231 and perhaps many other human cancer cells is due to elevated PLD activity and mediated by mTOR and MAP kinase. These results indicate that the survival signals generated by PLD involve the suppression TGF-β signals that promote G₁ arrest.     

Activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase by TGF-β1 via TβRII and Smad7 dependent mechanisms in human bronchial epithelial BEP2D cells

Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) can activate mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in many types of cells. The mechanism of this activation is not well elucidated. Here, we explore the role of TGF-β/Smads signaling compounds in TGF-β1-mediated activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) MAPK in human papillomavirus (HPV)-18 immortalized human bronchial epithelial cell line BEP2D and the role of TGF-β1-induced phosphorylation of ERK in proliferation and apoptosis of BEP2D. The cell models of siRNA-mediated silencing of TGF-β receptor type II (TβRII), Smad2, Smad3, Smad4, and Smad7 were employed in this study. Our results demonstrate that TGF-β1 activates ERK in a time-dependent manner with a maximum effect at 60 min; overexpression of Smad7 increased this TGF-β1-mediated phosphorylation of the ERK; and siRNA-mediated silencing of TβRII, Smad3, Smad4, and Smad7 abrogated this effect. Moreover, we observed that overexpression of Smad7 restored TGF-β1-mediated ERK phosphorylation in Smad4 knockdown cells but not in TβRII knockdown cells. In BEP2D cells, TGF-β1 treatment effectively inhibited cells’ proliferation and induced their apoptosis. Pretreatment with U0126, an inhibitor of ERK1/2, significantly enhanced the TGF-β1-mediated antiproliferative and apoptosis induction effects in BEP2D cells. These data revealed that TβRII and Smad7 play the critical roles in TGF-β1-mediated activation of ERK; Smad3 and Smad4 can play an indirect role through up-regulating Smad7 expression; and TGF-β1-induced phosphorylation of ERK may participate in BEP2D cell proliferation and apoptosis regulation.     

Internalization-dependent and -independent requirements for transforming growth factor beta receptor signaling via the Smad pathway

Members of the transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) family of proteins signal through cell surface transmembrane serine/threonine protein kinases known as type I and type II receptors. The TGF-β signal is extended through phosphorylation of receptor-associated Smad proteins by the type I receptor. Although numerous investigations have established the sequence of events in TGF-β receptor (TGF-βR) activation, none have examined the role of the endocytic pathway in initiation and/or maintenance of the signaling response. In this study we investigated whether TGF-βR internalization modulates type I receptor activation, the formation of a functional receptor/Smad/SARA complex, Smad2/3 phosphorylation or nuclear translocation, and TGF-β-dependent reporter gene activity. Our data provide evidence that, whereas type I receptor phosphorylation and association of SARA and Smad2 with the TGF-βR complex take place independently of clathrin lattice formation, Smad2 or Smad3 activation and downstream signaling only occur after endocytic vesicle formation. Thus, TGF-βR endocytosis is not simply a way to dampen the signaling response but instead is required to propagate signaling via the Smad pathway.     

Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) inhibits transforming growth factor-beta 2-induced increases in aqueous humor outflow resistance

Transforming growth factor-beta 2 (TGF-β2) is highly concentrated in the aqueous humor of primary open-angle glaucoma patients. TGF-β2 causes fibrosis of outflow tissues, such as the trabecular meshwork (TM), and increases intraocular pressure by increasing resistance to aqueous humor outflow. Recently, histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity was investigated in fibrosis in various tissues, revealing that HDAC inhibitors suppress tissue fibrosis. However, the effect of HDAC inhibitors on fibrosis in the eye was not determined. Here, we investigated the effect of suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA), an HDAC inhibitor, on TGF-β2-induced increased resistance to aqueous humor outflow. We found that SAHA suppressed TGF-β2-induced outflow resistance in perfused porcine eyes. Moreover, SAHA cotreatment suppressed TGF-β2-induced ocular hypertension in rabbits. The permeability of monkey TM (MTM) and Schlemm’s canal (MSC) cell monolayers was decreased by TGF-β2 treatment. SAHA inhibited the effects of TGF-β2 on the permeability of these cells. TGF-β2 also increased the expression of extracellular matrix proteins (fibronectin and collagen type I or IV) in MTM, MSC, and human TM (HTM) cells, while SAHA inhibited TGF-β2-induced extracellular matrix protein expression in these cells. SAHA also inhibited TGF-β2-induced phosphorylation of Akt and ERK, but did not inhibit Smad2/3 phosphorylation, the canonical pathway of TGF-β signaling. Moreover, SAHA induced the expression of phosphatase and tensin homolog, a PI3K/Akt signaling factor, as well as bone morphogenetic protein 7, an endogenous antagonist of TGF-β. These results imply that SAHA prevents TGF-β2-induced increases in outflow resistance and regulates the non-Smad pathway of TGF-β signaling in TM and MSC cells.     

SPSB1, a Novel Negative Regulator of the Transforming Growth Factor-β Signaling Pathway Targeting the Type II Receptor

Appropriate cellular signaling is essential to control cell proliferation, differentiation, and cell death. Aberrant signaling can have devastating consequences and lead to disease states, including cancer. The transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling pathway is a prominent signaling pathway that has been tightly regulated in normal cells, whereas its deregulation strongly correlates with the progression of human cancers. The regulation of the TGF-β signaling pathway involves a variety of physiological regulators. Many of these molecules act to alter the activity of Smad proteins. In contrast, the number of molecules known to affect the TGF-β signaling pathway at the receptor level is relatively low, and there are no known direct modulators for the TGF-β type II receptor (TβRII). Here we identify SPSB1 (a Spry domain-containing Socs box protein) as a novel regulator of the TGF-β signaling pathway. SPSB1 negatively regulates the TGF-β signaling pathway through its interaction with both endogenous and overexpressed TβRII (and not TβRI) via its Spry domain. As such, TβRII and SPSB1 co-localize on the cell membrane. SPSB1 maintains TβRII at a low level by enhancing the ubiquitination levels and degradation rates of TβRII through its Socs box. More importantly, silencing SPSB1 by siRNA results in enhanced TGF-β signaling and migration and invasion of tumor cells.     

Neuropilin-1 Mediates Divergent R-Smad Signaling and the Myofibroblast Phenotype

The transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) superfamily is one of the most diversified cell signaling pathways and regulates many physiological and pathological processes. Recently, neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) was reported to bind and activate the latent form of TGF-β1 (LAP-TGF-β1). We investigated the role of NRP-1 on Smad signaling in stromal fibroblasts upon TGF-β stimulation. Elimination of NRP-1 in stromal fibroblast cell lines increases Smad1/5 phosphorylation and downstream responses as evidenced by up-regulation of inhibitor of differentiation (Id-1). Conversely, NRP-1 loss decreases Smad2/3 phosphorylation and its responses as shown by down-regulation of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and also cells exhibit more quiescent phenotypes and growth arrest. Moreover, we also observed that NRP-1 expression is increased during the culture activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), a liver resident fibroblast. Taken together, our data suggest that NRP-1 functions as a key determinant of the diverse responses downstream of TGF-β1 that are mediated by distinct Smad proteins and promotes myofibroblast phenotype.