人工饲养恒河猴、食蟹猴的繁殖性能初报

目的探索北京地区人工饲养恒河猴与食蟹猴的繁殖性能,为温带地区猕猴的人工饲养和繁殖方式提供借鉴。方法对军事医学科学院实验动物中心饲养的317只恒河猴繁殖群（30只雄猴,287只雌猴）和78只食蟹猴繁殖群（8只雄猴,70只雌猴）近两年的繁殖性状进行观察和统计分析。结果恒河猴母猴妊娠率、繁殖率和成活率分别为60.73%、54.45%和96.89%。食蟹猴母猴妊娠率、繁殖率和成活率分别为79.86%、56.12%和75.00%。结论食蟹猴和恒河猴可以成功的在温带地区饲养和繁殖,但人工饲养食蟹猴的妊娠率与产仔率较恒河猴高,而仔猴成活率则低于恒河猴。     

北京地区恒河猴试验性繁殖及部分生物学特性观察

本实验于1992年底开始,通过选种、选配,建立了一个11只雄猴,77只雌猴的恒河猴生产繁殖种群并对其繁殖性能进行了观察与研究。三年间,利用大笼群养的“后宫式”繁殖方法,母猴怀孕107例,流产11例,生产仔猴96只,离乳94只。平均妊娠率、产仔率、离乳率分别为51．44％、46．15％、97．92％。在“后宫式”群养方式繁殖成功后,我们又尝试了单笼饲养、定期交配的新的繁殖方法,当年投种9只母猴,怀孕7只,生产7只。怀孕率、生产率均为77．78％。在进行实验性繁殖的同时,对人工条件下饲养的恒河猴的部分生物学特性如妊娠期、月经周期、血液生理生化指标、生长特性等进行了观察、记录和统计。结果表明人工条件下饲养的恒河猴在每年11月至次年4月间交配,4月至9月分娩。恒河猴具有间情期,每年秋冬季发情,平均月经周期为28．31±2．82d（n＝70）。平均怀孕期为163．46±11.87d（n＝13）。本实验为人工繁殖恒河猴进而实现实验动物化积累了基础数据,为将来提供高等级的、遗传背景清楚的、高质量的实验猕猴奠定了工作基础。     

安徽恒河猴的微生物学和寄生虫学检测

对安徽省实验猕猴中心的安徽恒河猴进行了微生物（包括病毒和病原菌）和寄生虫检测。对恒河猴的病毒检测结果发现,猕猴疱疹病毒1型（BV）和猴痘病毒（SPV）抗体的阳性率分别为20．7％（6／29）和10．0％（2／20）,20只恒河猴中没有发现猴反转录D型病毒（SRV）、猴免疫缺陷病毒（SIV）和猴T细胞趋向性病毒Ⅰ型（STLV—1）的抗体。5只受检的人工繁育的安徽恒河猴没有感染沙门菌、皮肤病原真菌、志贺菌和结核分枝杆菌的这四种病原菌。肉眼检测恒河猴体表,未发现体外寄生虫。39份人工繁殖的恒河猴粪便样品的总寄生虫感染率为38．5％,检测到溶组织内阿米巴和5种蠕虫（粪类圆线虫、猴结节线虫、绦虫、钩虫、蛔虫）,感染率最高的是粪类圆线虫和猴结节线虫。本次调查表明,安徽恒河猴无特殊疾病,健康状况基本良好,可以建立普通级的实验恒河猴,实现安徽恒河猴的实验动物化。     

人工饲养条件下死亡实验恒河猴肠道病理改变特点分析

目的观察人工饲养条件下实验恒河猴肠道病理改变,探讨实验猴肠道疾病分布规律和病理改变特点,丰富实验猴自发病变基本研究资料。方法对1998-2008年云南地区饲养的自然死亡的155只恒河猴（年龄2-20岁）的肠道进行病理检查,按年龄分为幼年组、成年组、老年组,并对观察结果进行统计学分析。结果155例恒河猴中58例检出肠道病变,有慢性肠炎、急性肠炎、黏膜充血水肿、出血、糜烂、溃疡、穿孔、寄生虫共8种主要病变,出现率最高的为急性肠炎（20．00％）。实验猴不同年龄组肠道病变类型分布基本相同,肠道病变率随年龄增长而增高,不同年龄组间统计学分析差异无显著性。结论人工饲养条件下死亡实验猴肠道病变检出率较高,急性肠炎是实验猴的主要致死原因之一,实验猴肠道病理改变随年龄增长而病变加重。对实验猴饲养和研究时,应重视肠道病变因素,尤其是急性肠炎。死亡实验猴肠道病变研究对实验猴的质量控制和相关动物实验有重要指导价值。     

人工饲养条件下死亡恒河猴肺脏病理改变分析

目的观察人工饲养条件下实验恒河猴肺脏病理改变,探讨实验猴呼吸系统疾病分布规律和病理改变特点,丰富实验猴自发病变基本研究资料。方法对1998～2008年云南地区饲养的自然死亡的155只恒河猴（年龄2～20岁）的肺脏进行病理检查,按年龄分为幼年组、成年组、老年组,并对观察结果进行统计学分析。结果实验猴肺脏主要病变有大叶性肺炎、支气管肺炎、间质性肺炎、肺气肿、支气管扩张症、胸膜炎、肺肉芽肿性炎等12种,出现率最高的为支气管肺炎（18.71%）和大叶性肺炎（16.74%）。恒河猴肺脏病变在不同年龄阶段均有发生,老年猴组肺脏病变发生率最高,疾病类型和发生率在不同年组中分布不相同,统计学分析显示：支气管炎病变成年组发病率明显高于幼年组;肺气肿病变老年组明显高于成年组和幼年组,（P〈0.05）。结论人工饲养条件下死亡实验猴肺脏病变检出率较高,实验猴肺脏病变在不同年龄阶段存在差异,实验猴肺脏病理改变结果丰富了实验猴的基本研究资料,对实验猴的质量控制和相关动物实验有重要价值。     

安徽野生和自繁恒河猴血液生化指标的测定与分析简

目的 测定人工饲养条件下安徽野生和自繁恒河猴的血液生化指标,并比较分析两种来源的恒河猴,雌、雄猴间以及感染BV阳性与阴性恒河猴生化指标的差异性.方法采用全自动生化分析仪对安徽野生和自繁恒河猴的14个血液生化指标进行测定,并用统计学方法比较了相同性别的野生猴与自繁猴以及感染BV阳性与阴性恒河猴血液生化值的差异性.结果 野生猴与自繁猴雄性的生化指标普遍高于雌性,野生猴碱性磷酸酶、甘油三脂和谷氨酰基转移酶雌雄间差异显著;自繁猴碱性磷酸酶、白蛋白、血清Ca、甘油三脂、肌酐和谷氨酰基转移酶雌雄间差异有显著性.除谷草转氨酶、尿素氮和血清总胆固醇外,感染BV阳性较感染BV阴性的恒河猴所得生化指标高.结论 野生猴与自繁猴,雌雄间猴以及感染BV阳性与阴性猴的血液生化指标有一定的差异性.     

安徽野生和自繁恒河猴血液生化指标的测定与分析

目的测定人工饲养条件下安徽野生和自繁恒河猴的血液生化指标,并比较分析两种来源的恒河猴,雌、雄猴间以及感染BV阳性与阴性恒河猴生化指标的差异性。方法采用全自动生化分析仪对安徽野生和自繁恒河猴的14个血液生化指标进行测定,并用统计学方法比较了相同性别的野生猴与自繁猴以及感染BV阳性与阴性恒河猴血液生化值的差异性。结果野生猴与自繁猴雄性的生化指标普遍高于雌性,野生猴碱性磷酸酶、甘油三脂和谷氨酰基转移酶雌雄间差异显著;自繁猴碱性磷酸酶、白蛋白、血清Ca、甘油三脂、肌酐和谷氨酰基转移酶雌雄间差异有显著性。除谷草转氨酶、尿素氮和血清总胆固醇外,感染BV阳性较感染BV阴性的恒河猴所得生化指标高。结论野生猴与自繁猴,雌雄间猴以及感染BV阳性与阴性猴的血液生化指标有一定的差异性。     

恒河猴血清孕酮含量测定方法

目的建立恒河猴血清中孕酮含量测定方法。方法本文采用放射免疫测定技术。结果孕酮的回收率为94％,批内CV为5．1％～8．3％,批间CV为4．5％～7．7％,灵敏度为5～10Pg。说明该方法具有较高的灵敏度、特异性、准确性。分别测定了幼年组、成年组和老年组的雌性恒河猴的血清中的孕酮含量分别为：（0．20±0．04）ng／mL、（6．26±0．17）ng,mL和（0．35±0．06）ng/mL;成年雌性恒河猴月经周期孕酮的变化范围为：滤泡期为（1．10±0．12）ng／mL,排卵期（2．36±0．18）ng/mL,黄体期（6．17±0．15）ng/mL,妊娠期随着妊娠月份的增加,孕酮浓度也增加,最高可达50ng／mL。结论经实验验证,该方法灵敏、可靠、适用,可作为恒河猴血清中孕酮含量测定的一种方法。     

恒河猴STLV-1血清抗体流行病学研究

目的调查我国恒河猴STLV-1流行病学特征.方法用免疫荧光法和蛋白印迹法对537只野捕恒河猴,365只繁殖猴和44只D型逆转录病毒抗体阳性猴作了STLV-1血清抗体检查.结果 10岁以上恒河猴的STLV-1抗体阳性率(15.5%)高于10岁以下的恒河猴(6.2%);雌猴的STLV-1抗体阳性率(17.5%)高于雄猴(5%);D型逆转录病毒抗体阳性猴群的STLV-1抗体阳性率(34.1%)高于野捕猴群(8.8%).结论在我国的野生和饲养恒河猴群中广泛存在STVL-1血清抗体阳性动物,其抗体阳性率与动物的年龄和性别有关.     

重庆地区雌性恒河猴生殖生理的季节性变化

目的 研究重庆地区雌性恒河猴性周期的行为、内生殖器随季节的变化.方法 36只人工饲养条件下的成年雌性恒河猴,①建立恒河猴个体月经史档案,观察不同生殖季节性周期的行为变化.②用彩色多普勒超声(CDFI)和MRI检测不同生殖季节恒河猴子宫形态、子宫内膜厚度在月经周期中的变化.③剖腹探查,直视下测量子宫各径线.结果 10月至次年2月恒河猴的月经周期短而规则,CDFI和MRI检测子宫内膜线清晰可见.3月至9月恒河猴的月经周期多不规则,CDFI和MRI检测子宫内膜线模糊,子宫内膜组织、卵巢组织随月经周期变化不明显.结论 重庆地区人工饲养条件下,雌性恒河猴的生殖季节为10月至次年2月,非生殖季节为3月至9月,其性周期的行为、内生殖器随季节变化明显.     

Determinants of postnatal weight in infant rhesus monkeys: Implications for the study of interindividual differences in neonatal growth

This paper provides an analysis of infant body weights obtained from a sample of 38 rhesus monkey infants (Macaco mulatta) aged 29–165 days, i.e., animals still nutritionally dependent on their mothers. We examine the data on neonatal weights in relation to a number of factors, most notably, the sex of the infants, and the age and adiposity of their mothers. The infant body weights represent cross-sectional rather than longitudinal data; because they were mostly free-ranging animals, the infants were weighed just once each. Nevertheless, the results of our analysis strongly suggest that early postnatal growth in free-ranging rhesus is dependent on both maternal fatness and age. They also suggest that, although male infants are generally heavier than like-aged female infants, they do not grow any faster during the early postnatal period. Here, we speculate that the associations between infant size and both maternal age and adiposity are the result of between-mother differences in lactational output. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Birth of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) infants after in vitro fertilization and gestation in female rhesus or pigtailed (Macaca nemestrina) macaques

A study was conducted to assess the possibility of using pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) as recipients for rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) embryos. A total of 250 oocytes were collected from 11 rhesus monkeys during 12 follicular aspirations. We performed 15 embryo transfers with two embryos each into rhesus recipients, which resulted in eight pregnancies, of which two were lost during the second trimester. Among the remaining six pregnant rhesus macaques, two were carrying twins, resulting in the birth of eight infants. Twelve transfers of rhesus embryos into pigtailed macaques resulted in one pregnancy and the birth of one infant. Fetal growth and development were monitored by monthly ultrasound examinations, during which biparietal measurements were taken and compared with those derived from 22 pregnant control monkeys. In vitro fertilization-derived singletons tended to develop faster than did twins and naturally conceived control singletons during the initial months of pregnancy and weighed more at birth than did twins. There were pronounced morphologic changes in the placenta of the rhesus that developed in the female pigtailed macaque. These included an irregular shape, elevated placenta-to-birth-weight ratio, and an abnormal length and diameter of the umbilical cord. Histologic analyses of the rhesus-pigtailed placenta showed evidence of maternal-placental floor infarction and thrombosis of the spiral artery with resulting infarction of the villi. These results demonstrate that pigtailed macaques can carry rhesus fetuses to term, but further studies are necessary to determine the cause of the decreased pregnancy rates and observed placental abnormalities.     

Epigenetic mechanism underlying the development of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)-like phenotypes in prenatally androgenized rhesus monkeys

The pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is poorly understood. PCOS-like phenotypes are produced by prenatal androgenization (PA) of female rhesus monkeys. We hypothesize that perturbation of the epigenome, through altered DNA methylation, is one of the mechanisms whereby PA reprograms monkeys to develop PCOS. Infant and adult visceral adipose tissues (VAT) harvested from 15 PA and 10 control monkeys were studied. Bisulfite treated samples were subjected to genome-wide CpG methylation analysis, designed to simultaneously measure methylation levels at 27,578 CpG sites. Analysis was carried out using Bayesian Classification with Singular Value Decomposition (BCSVD), testing all probes simultaneously in a single test. Stringent criteria were then applied to filter out invalid probes due to sequence dissimilarities between human probes and monkey DNA, and then mapped to the rhesus genome. This yielded differentially methylated loci between PA and control monkeys, 163 in infant VAT, and 325 in adult VAT (BCSVD P<0.05). Among these two sets of genes, we identified several significant pathways, including the antiproliferative role of TOB in T cell signaling and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling. Our results suggest PA may modify DNA methylation patterns in both infant and adult VAT. This pilot study suggests that excess fetal androgen exposure in female nonhuman primates may predispose to PCOS via alteration of the epigenome, providing a novel avenue to understand PCOS in humans.     

Growth of the masseter muscle in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

The growth of the masseter muscle in eight infant, juvenile, and adolescent female rhesus monkeys (M. mulatta) was examined over a 2.5 year period using serial radiographic cephalometric techniques with the aid of radiopaque muscle markers. The radiopaque markers, which are composed of small pieces of root canal broach inserted into the muscle belly, make it possible to determine longitudinal masseter muscle growth as well as migration of the masseter muscle relative to the mandible. It was found that the masseter muscle increased in length by 64% during the total growth period, most of which occurred between 6 and 18 months of age. Relative to the cranium, the masseter muscle grew markedly inferiorly and only slightly posteriorly. Relative to the mandible, the masseter migrated in a posterior and slightly superior direction, keeping pace with the ramus and condyle as they grew posteriorly and posterosuperiorly throughout the study period. It was concluded that: 1) radiopaque muscle markers are a valuable tool for analysis of muscle growth and alteration of muscle location; 2) the masseter muscle in the rhesus monkey undergoes elongation, probably due to addition of sarcomeres at the fiber-tendon junctions; and 3) posterior migration of the masseter muscle relative to the corpus of the mandible, probably due to the nature of its periosteal attachment, results in a stability of the anteroposterior position of the masseter muscle despite the anterior displacement of the mandible.     

Mandibular growth in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)

Mandibular growth of 42 rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) was analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. Four groups of animals were defined according to dentitional age (i.e., infant, juvenile, adolescent, young adult). At each age growth was observed for a 24 week period. Since some animals were observed at more than one stage of development, 57 periods of growth were studied. The growth incremental data were collected by superimposing serial cephalograms on mandibular implants. Growth and remodeling of both the skeletal and dento-alveolar components of the rhesus mandible were greatest in the infant monkeys and were less in successive age groups. Posterior relocation of the ramus was noted in all age groups while bone deposition on the anterior and inferior borders of the mandibular body was greatest in the younger animals. The most pronounced dental changes also occurred in the younger animals while the dentitions of the adolescent and adult animals were generally more stable. This study demonstrates that the rate and direction of normal mandibular growth varies with the age of the animal. Furthermore, mandibular growth is quantified at four defined maturational levels to provide a set of values illustrating normal mandibular growth. These values can also be used as control data for experimental studies.     

An experimental examination of female responses to infant face coloration in rhesus macaques

In many primates, infants possess distinctive coloration that changes as a function of age. This colour is thought to serve the purpose of eliciting caretaking behaviour from the mother as well as other conspecifics. The present study investigated the responses of adult female rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) to pictures of infant faces in relation to infant age and facial coloration. Study animals were shown digitized images of neonates and 5-6-month-old infants displaying either unaltered facial colour, pink neonatal colour, or novel (green) facial colour. While infant and neonate faces of all colours elicited the attention of adult females, pink neonatal facial coloration did not appear to be especially attractive to subjects in contrast with the findings from an earlier study [Higley, J.D., Hopkins, W.D., Hirsch, R.M. Marra, L.M. Suomi S.J., 1987. Preferences of female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) for infantile coloration. Dev. Psychobiol. 20, 7-18]. The results suggest that infant facial colour is not particularly important in mediating infant attractiveness to rhesus macaque females as previously suggested or that other infantile facial characteristics might be more important than colour in eliciting caretaking behaviours amongst females.     

Surgical correction of genital prolapse in three rhesus monkeys

Three adult female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in a breeding colony of approximately 75 adult females developed a clinical condition characterized by protrusion of the cervix through the vulva during pregnancy and/or following parturition. The Gilliam round-ligament uterine ventro-suspension procedure (hereafter called the Gilliam uterine suspension or uterine suspension procedure) was used to return the cervix to a normal anatomical position. Following the procedure, one female delivered a normal live infant, but reprolapsed. After a second suspension procedure, she again became pregnant and delivered a normal live infant without a reoccurrence of the prolapse. A second animal never became pregnant despite repeated breedings to different males for two years. The third animal became pregnant twice following the procedure. The first pregnancy terminated in abortion at two months of gestation, while the second pregnancy ended in an apparent dystocia, necessitating a cesarean section and delivery of a dead fetus. The animal died post-operatively. This surgical procedure successfully salvaged one of these animals which otherwise had no reproductive future.     

Life history variables of wild troops of formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Kenting,Taiwan

A study on population dynamics of wild Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Kenting, southern Taiwan, was conducted from March 1985 to August 1990. At first, only one monkey troop was studied. It fissioned in 1987 and both of the daughter troops have been observed since then. Total number of animals increased from 10 to 29 over the years, but the sizes of individual troops have never been more than 20. Seasonality in breeding has been detected: copulations were concentrated in the period from November to January and 75% of all the 28 births occurred between April and June. Time of birth by parous females without offspring from the preceding year was earlier than that of lactating females. Young females gave their first births at 4 or 5 years of age. Total birth rate over the study period was 0.8 infant per female per year. Hunting was the main cause of death while natural mortality rate was low for the animals. There was only one adult male in each troop for most of the time. Troop males in the two daughter troops have been replaced two or three times in the three years by some solitary males that moved around in the area. The reproductive parameters of Formosan macaques in Kenting were found to be more similar to that of rhesus monkeys than to Japanese macaques. And a case of higher reproductive success in a high-ranking matriline was reported.     

Influences of season and age on maturation in vitro of rhesus monkey oocytes.

Oocytes obtained from antral follicles of adult and adolescent rhesus monkeys during the annual breeding season extruded polar bodies in vitro at significantly higher rates (50--60%) than oocytes from animals of similar age during the non-breeding season ((20--30%) or from infant and prepubertal females at any time of the year (20--30%). The proportion of oocytes degenerating in culture was greatest in groups where maturation was highest.     

The effects of extended time in the laboratory on selected aspects of reproduction in the female rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)

Reproduction data from 60 wild-caught and 16 captive-born, hand-reared female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were examined. Both groups had been maintained in a controlled laboratory environment, the wild-caught for a minimum of 10 years and the captive-born for a minimum of 5 years. All were bred to wild-caught males. Animals of both sexes were individually caged unless being bred. Data from 662 pregnancies indicated that, although seasonal breeding became attenuated in the laboratory, it did not disappear. Neither pregnancy outcome nor number of matings necessary for conception was affected by increasing parity or prior occurrence of fetal wastage or hysterotomy. Nor did hysterotomy affect the potential for a subsequent vaginal delivery. The number of matings necessary for conception were shown to be a useful predictor of animals that should be culled from the breeding colony. Birthweights of infants of wild-caught females, but only male infants of house-born females, increased with parity of the mother. Parity had only minimal effect on gestation length. Conception was shown to occur infrequently at less than 100 days postpartum even when animals were not lactating and were rebred begining as early as 56 days postpartum. Summary data were presented for pregnancy outcome, gestation length, infant birth weight, and sex for both groups of animals.