关于锶同位素考古研究的几个问题

本文讨论了锶同位素考古研究所涉及的几个重要理论方法问题。首先是岩石、土壤和河流的锶同位素组成以及生物锶的来源问题。然后是锶同位素方法的四点局限性,即骨骼和牙本质样本的成岩污染问题、不同地区的锶同位素重叠现象、牙齿和骨骼的锶同位素混合效应和不能识别移民后代的问题。最后讨论了锶同位素方法应用于人类迁移研究的两个重难点,一是如何分辨一个遗址或墓地中的外来人口,二是如何找到外来人口的来源地。     

吉林大安市后套木嘎遗址出土鸟类遗存研究

本文对后套木嘎遗址新石器时代到辽金时期出土的鸟类遗存进行专题研究,通过对出土的鸟类骨骼进行个体及种群的统计和分析,探讨该遗址先民对鸟类资源的利用方式、狩猎模式、遗址的使用时间和所在地区的生态环境,为进一步研究该遗址的文化内涵提供重要线索。     

泥河湾盆地板井子晚更新世遗址古人类对动物资源的消费策略

本文以泥河湾盆地板井子遗址（约90 kaBP）2015年出土的动物骨骼为材料,通过骨骼表面痕迹分析、骨骼单元出现频率研究及长骨破碎方式的统计,辨识自然作用与人类行为对动物骨骼造成的不同影响,讨论深海氧同位素5阶段(MIS 5)中国北方古人类获取、搬运及处理动物资源的综合性策略。研究结果显示：1)遗址出土的动物遗存为古人类活动所遗留,自然营力对动物骨骼有改造作用,但并未影响我们对古人类行为的辨识;2)古人类在捕获马科动物之后,将其完整地带回了遗址并肢解;3)在处理猎物遗骸时,肌肉和骨髓富集的部位是古人类利用的重点。结合河南许昌灵井遗址的动物遗存研究结果,我们认为,在MIS 5阶段前后,中国北方已经出现了可以高效利用动物资源的人类群体;稳定、充沛的能量来源,或是他们应对北半球中高纬度干旱草原环境气候波动的重要生存策略。     

陕西神木木柱柱梁遗址动物遗存研究

对2011年陕北神木木柱柱梁龙山晚期遗址出土的大量动物遗存,按照出土单位对所有的动物骨骼进行了分类、测量和鉴定。总共鉴定出脊椎动物27个种属,包括鳖、鸟类、褐家鼠、中华鼢鼠、蒙古兔、狐、貉、狼、狗、虎、黄鼬、狗獾、野猪和家猪、奥氏马、野驴、骆驼、鹿类、黄牛、山羊、绵羊、鹅喉羚。特别是发现了目前时代偏晚偏南的马科动物绝灭种Equus(Sussemionus) ovodovi, 根据对出土动物骨骼的分析结果表明：遗址周围的自然景观以草原为主,不远处有一定面积的森林、疏林、灌丛及沙漠的自然景观。从先民对动物资源的利用以羊为主情况可见他们以畜牧业经济为主,同时从事农业和狩猎采集。     

甘肃齐家文化中仪式性开颅手术初探

作为脑外科手术的一种,开颅术在世界多地史前遗址中均有发现。大量发现表明开颅术在颅骨上的尺寸、位置及手术原因千差万别。开颅术在中国境内亦有发现;但在齐家文化（2300-1500BC）遗址中十分少见。位于甘肃省甘南藏族自治区临潭县陈旗乡的磨沟遗址是一处重要的齐家文化墓葬遗址。本文将重点讨论一例磨沟出土的开颅个体,该成年男性个体(M179:R2)颅骨上有愈合程度较高的开颅术的痕迹;同时,将其与其他同时期（3000~0 BC）中国出土的开颅术个体进行比较分析,从而论证阐述开颅术实行的原因及过程。该个体左侧顶骨冠状缝后侧位置处有一圆形穿孔,其小孔边缘不甚规则,且有明显愈合痕迹。穿孔切口的特征显示该穿孔由刮削法完成。但由于该穿孔高度愈合,我们无法准确判断完成穿孔所使用的工具。该个体上开颅术的特征以及相关考古学资料使得作者们认为M179:R2进行开颅术的原因或与巫术仪式有关。同时,磨沟出土的其他带有开颅术个体（大多数是男性,且颅骨开颅处愈合程度较高）也支持这一观点。     

与中国的家猪早期畜养有关的若干问题

<正> 猪在中国的饲养有着悠久的历史。它素有“六畜”之一的称号。我国人民关心家猪在中国的起源和培育的问题。在我国,猪的畜养不但可以追溯到有文字历史的早期;更早,在我国各地新石器时代遗址中,猪的骨骼也是屡见不鲜的。据作者不完全的了解和经手的兽骨来看,猪可说是我国新石器时代遗址动物群中最常见的一种动物。例如:辽宁旅顺郭家屯遗址,大连遗址,内蒙古宁城遗址,赤峰夏家店和药王庙遗址,山东大汶口遗址,曲阜西夏侯遗址,陕西沣西遗址,西安半坡遗址,河南淅川遗址,江苏邳县刘林遗址,吴江梅堰遗址,南京北阴阳营遗     

山东小高全新世早期遗址人类对獐的利用

小高遗址是山东地区近年来发现的一处全新世早期遗址,出土有大量的獐骨骼。本文主要从年龄结构、季节性特征及骨骼单元分布频率等角度对獐的骨骼进行研究。年龄结构的研究结果显示,人类的狩猎对象以7-24个月的青年和中年的个体为主;且越到晚期,未成年个体所占比例越高,这表明大多数獐是在接近或达到最大体重后成为人类的狩猎对象,且人类狩猎活动对獐的种群结构造成了一定影响。季节性研究结果显示,人类对獐的狩猎活动多发生在食物资源比较短缺的冬季及春季。骨骼单元分布频率和骨骼破裂程度研究表明,小高遗址可能还存在对骨髓的充分开发与利用。结合獐的生物学特征,我们认为,小高先民对獐的利用模式符合全新世早期动物资源广谱性和强化利用的特征,也表明人与动物之间存在着密切的互动关系。     

山东地区清墓中女性居民的缠足现象

山东安丘牟山水库遗址和广饶十村遗址的清代墓葬中出土了存在足部畸形的3例女性个体,结合历史记载以及近代缠足女性X光照片的对比,推测应为缠足后所产生的现象。通过观察其足部骨骼,总结出缠足畸形在骨骼标本上的几个特点:1)足部骨骼整体纤弱化,以跖骨最为明显;2)跖骨的跖跗关节处以及跗骨出现楔形改变;3)下肢骨肌嵴不发达,骨骼表面较为光滑,胫骨下端前缘出现关节面。缠足组与未缠足组进行对比发现,跖骨是差异最为明显的骨骼,且缠足组的肢骨粗壮度稍弱于未缠足组。     

巫山蓝家寨遗址家畜的动物骨骼

2012年巫山蓝家寨遗址考古发掘中,出土了春秋时期的马(Equus caballus)、黄牛(Bos taurus)、山羊(Capra hircus)、鸡(Gallus gallus domesticus)、狗(Canis familiaris)、猪(Sus domestica)6种家畜的骨骼。这是三峡地区唯一一个在先秦时期六畜兼备的古文化遗址。遗址中的马、牛,是三峡地区同类家畜中时代最早的发现资料。三峡地区早期历史时期,人类肉食资源以野生动物为主,家畜动物骨骼发现材料较少。蓝家寨遗址出现种类较多的家畜动物种类,为全面分析和认识三峡地区经济形态发展过程、古居民行为模式和区域文化等,提供了重要资料。遗址中在春秋时期出现的家畜马和黄牛,与该时期各种区域文化在三峡地区的碰撞、交流、融合有关。     

陕北横山杨界沙遗址动物遗存研究

杨界沙遗址位于陕西榆林市横山县雷龙湾乡沙峁村张油坊组, 2010年发掘时出土了大量的动物遗存, 时代为仰韶晚期。按照出土单位对所有的动物骨骼进行了科学的收集以及分类、测量和鉴定。通过系统的分类和研究表明至少代表3纲7目10科11个属种, 包括蚌类、鸟类、环颈雉、刺猬、褐家鼠、中华鼢鼠、甘肃鼢鼠、草兔、黄鼬、狗、猪、鹅喉羚、绵羊。根据对出土动物骨骼的分析结果表明: 遗址周围的自然景观以草原为主, 草原上有草兔、绵羊等食草动物, 不远处有一定面积沙漠, 其间有鹅喉羚出没。草原和沙漠间分布着一定面积的水域, 其间有蚌类出现。家养动物猪的肉量比例占到了整个食用动物群的87.9%, 除了饲养家畜, 捕猎野生动物也是当时人们的肉食来源之一。     

Isotopic tracing of the impact of mobility on infectious disease: The origin of people with treponematosis buried in hull,England, in the late medieval period

Treponematosis has been one of the most studied and debated infectious diseases in paleopathology, particularly from the standpoint of its origin, evolution, and transmission. This study links evidence for treponematosis in skeletons from the 14th–16th century AD cemetery of the Augustinian friary of Hull Magistrates Court, England, with data from stable isotope analysis to test the hypothesis that the people with treponemal disease buried at this site were not locally born and raised. The objective is to explore the potential of using stable isotope data to track the place of origin and extent of mobility of individuals with an infectious disease. Dental enamel samples of 12 skeletons were selected for strontium (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio) and oxygen (δ¹⁸O) stable isotope analysis based on the presence (six ‐ diseased) or absence (six ‐ controls) of bone changes associated with treponemal disease. The oxygen isotope ratios of all but three individuals (1047, 1121, 823) overlapped at two standard deviations with the inferred local precipitation range, and only one individual (1216) had a strontium isotope ratio outside the regional range. Two of the four had probable/possible treponemal bone changes. Those with treponemal bone changes were not demonstrably more likely to be migrants than those without such lesions. However, because of extensive documentary evidence for trade with the Baltic Sea area, and for merchants from towns such as Stralsund, Danzig and Elbing being in Hull, it is very plausible that the four migrants came from the Baltic area or even southern Sweden. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Investigating regional mobility in the southern hinterland of the Wari Empire: biogeochemistry at the site of Beringa, Peru

Empires have transformed political, social, and environmental landscapes in the past and present. Although much research on archaeological empires focuses on large-scale imperial processes, we use biogeochemistry and bioarchaeology to investigate how imperialism may have reshaped regional political organization and regional migration patterns in the Wari Empire of the Andean Middle Horizon (ca. AD 600-1000). Radiogenic strontium isotope analysis of human remains from the site of Beringa in the Majes Valley of southern Peru identified the geographic origins of individuals impacted by the Wari Empire. At Beringa, the combined archaeological human enamel and bone values range from (87)Sr/(86)Sr = 0.70802 - 0.70960, with a mean (87)Sr/(86)Sr = 0.70842 ± 0.00027 (1σ, n = 52). These data are consistent with radiogenic strontium isotope data from the local fauna in the Majes Valley and imply that most individuals were local inhabitants, rather than migrants from the Wari heartland or some other locale. There were two outliers at Beringa, and these "non-local" individuals may have derived from other parts of the South Central Andes. This is consistent with our understanding of expansive trade networks and population movement in the Andean Middle Horizon, likely influenced by the policies of the Wari Empire. Although not a Wari colony, the incorporation of small sites like Beringa into the vast social and political networks of the Middle Horizon resulted in small numbers of migrants at Beringa.     

Determining the sources of calcium for migratory songbirds using stable strontium isotopes

We investigated natural variations in the stable isotopic composition of strontium (a surrogate for calcium) in the bones of a single species of breeding migratory songbird, as well as in their eggshells, egg contents, and food sources. We use this information to determine the sources of calcium to these migratory songbirds and their offspring. Samples were collected from two locations in the northeastern USA (Hubbard Brook, NH, and Downer Forest, VT.) that differed in soil geochemistry. The mean ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of food items (caterpillars and snails), eggshells, and egg contents were indistinguishable within each site, but significantly different between the two sites. Mean ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios for the bones of adult females were significantly different between the two sites, but values were significantly lower than those of food items and eggshells at each site. Two of four adult individuals studied at each site had ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios lower than the entire range of values for local food sources. Mixing calculations indicate that up to 60% of skeletal strontium and calcium was derived from foods consumed in the winter grounds where lower ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios predominate. At each study site, the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of eggshells differed significantly between clutches, but the mean clutch ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios were unrelated to the skeletal ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of the laying adult. These findings suggest that strontium (and hence calcium) for eggshell production in this species is derived predominantly from local food sources in breeding areas. Thus, reductions in available calcium in northern temperate ecosystems due to the influences of acid deposition could be potentially harmful to this and other species of migratory bird.     

Distinguishing sources of base cations in irrigated and natural soils: evidence from strontium isotopes

Strontium isotope ratios (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) of soil solids, soil cation extracts, irrigation water and plant material are used to determine strontium and therefore cation sources and fluxes in irrigated and natural soil–plant systems. Strontium isotopes of soil solids from four soil profiles (two irrigated vineyard soils and two 'natural' profiles from nearby reserves) show large differences between soil horizons with depth. These differences are not reflected in ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of soil labile cations, which show both little variation down-profile and much lower ratios than soil solids. In the undisturbed, natural soil profiles, labile cation ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios are close to the ratio of modern seawater, indicating that solutes of marine origin from precipitation are the primary input of strontium (and calcium) to the labile cation pool. In the irrigated soil profiles, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of labile cations are consistently shifted towards that of the irrigation water. Mass-balance calculations using ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of the different inputs to the labile cation pool indicate more than 90% of labile strontium is derived from precipitation solutes in unirrigated soils, and up to 44% from irrigation water solutes as an additional source in irrigated soils. The ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of grapes grown in irrigated soils match precisely with those of the labile soil cations, demonstrating that cation nutrients are drawn wholly from the labile cation pool and have the same mix of precipitation, irrigation, and soil solid sources. The ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of grapes grown in the irrigated soils may therefore vary over time depending on (1) the changing mix of irrigation water and local precipitation and (2) potential change to irrigation water. These findings suggest limitations to the use of strontium isotopes in the tracing of grapes and wines to their soil of origin.     

Mobility,mortality, and the middle ages: Identification of migrant individuals in a 14th century black death cemetery population

Mobility and migration patterns of groups and individuals have long been a topic of interest to archaeologists, used for broad explanatory models of cultural change as well as illustrations of historical particularism. The 14th century AD was a tumultuous period of history in Britain, with severely erratic weather patterns, the Great Famine of 1315–1322, the Scottish Wars of Independence, and the Hundred Years' War providing additional migration pressures to the ordinary economic issues drawing individuals to their capital under more stable conditions. East Smithfield Black Death Cemetery (Royal Mint) had a documented use period of only 2 years (AD 1348–1350), providing a precise historical context (～50 years) for data. Adults (n = 30) from the East Smithfield site were sampled for strontium and oxygen stable isotope analyses of tooth enamel. Five individuals were demonstrated to be statistical outliers through the combined strontium and oxygen isotope data. Potential origins for migrants ranged from London's surrounding hinterlands to distant portions of northern and western Britain. Historic food sourcing practices for London were found to be an important factor for consideration in a broader than expected ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr range reflected in a comparison of enamel samples from three London datasets. The pooled dataset demonstrated a high level of consistency between site data, divergent from the geologically predicted range. We argue that this supports the premise that isotope data in human populations must be approached as a complex interaction between behavior and environment and thus should be interpreted cautiously with the aid of alternate lines of evidence. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Early African Diaspora in colonial Campeche, Mexico: strontium isotopic evidence

Construction activities around Campeche's central park led to the discovery of an early colonial church and an associated burial ground, in use from the mid-16th century AD to the late 17th century. Remains of some individuals revealed dental mutilations characteristic of West Africa. Analyses of strontium isotopes of dental enamel from these individuals yielded unusually high (87)Sr/(86)Sr ratios, inconsistent with an origin in Mesoamerica, but consistent with an origin in West Africa in terrain underlain by the West Africa Craton, perhaps near the port of Elmina, a principal source of slaves for the New World during the 16th century. These individuals likely represent some of the earliest representatives of the African Diaspora in the Americas.     

Paleomobility in the Tiwanaku Diaspora: Biogeochemical analyses at Rio Muerto,Moquegua, Peru

Paleomobility has been a key element in the study of the expansion of ancient states and empires, including the Tiwanaku polity of the South Central Andes (AD 500–1000). We present radiogenic strontium and oxygen isotope data from human burials from three cemeteries in the Tiwanaku‐affiliated Middle Horizon archaeological site complex of Rio Muerto in the Moquegua Valley of southern Peru. At Rio Muerto, archaeological human enamel and bone values range from ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr = 0.70657–0.72018, with a mean of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr = 0.70804 ± 0.00207 (1σ, n = 55). For the subset of samples analyzed for oxygen isotope values (n = 48), the data ranges from δ¹⁸O_{carbonate(VSMOW)} = +18.1 to +27.0‰. When contextualized with other lines of archaeological evidence, we interpret these data as evidence for an archaeological population in which the majority of individuals had “local” origins, and were likely second‐generation, or more, immigrants from the Tiwanaku heartland in the altiplano. Based on detailed life history data, we argue a smaller number of individuals came at different ages from various regions within the Tiwanaku polity. We consider whether these individuals with isotopic values consistent with “nonlocal” geographic origins could represent first‐generation migrants, marriage exchange partners, or occupationally mobile herders, traders or other travelers. By combining isotopic life history studies with mortuary treatment data, we use a person‐centered migration history approach to state integration and expansion. Isotopic analyses of paleomobility at the Rio Muerto site complex contribute to the role of diversity in ancient states by demonstrating the range of geographic origins rather than simply colonists from the Lake Titicaca Basin. Am J Phys Anthropol 155:405–421, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Strontium Isotope Signals in Cremated Petrous Portions as Indicator for Childhood Origin

Dental enamel is currently of high informative value in studies concerning childhood origin and human mobility because the strontium isotope ratio in human dental enamel is indicative of geographical origin. However, many prehistoric burials involve cremation and although strontium retains its original biological isotopic composition, even when exposed to very high temperatures, intact dental enamel is rarely preserved in cremated or burned human remains. When preserved, fragments of dental enamel may be difficult to recognize and identify. Finding a substitute material for strontium isotope analysis of burned human remains, reflecting childhood values, is hence of high priority. This is the first study comparing strontium isotope ratios from cremated and non-cremated petrous portions with enamel as indicator for childhood origin. We show how strontium isotope ratios in the otic capsule of the petrous portion of the inner ear are highly correlated with strontium isotope ratios in dental enamel from the same individual, whether inhumed or cremated. This implies that strontium isotope ratios in the petrous bone, which practically always survives cremation, are indicative of childhood origin for human skeletal remains. Hence, the petrous bone is ideal as a substitute material for strontium isotope analysis of burned human remains.     

Apotropaic Practices and the Undead: A Biogeochemical Assessment of Deviant Burials in Post-Medieval Poland

Apotropaic observances-traditional practices intended to prevent evil-were not uncommon in post-medieval Poland, and included specific treatment of the dead for those considered at risk for becoming vampires. Excavations at the Drawsko 1 cemetery (17^th–18^th c. AD) have revealed multiple examples (n = 6) of such deviant burials amidst hundreds of normative interments. While historic records describe the many potential reasons why some were more susceptible to vampirism than others, no study has attempted to discern differences in social identity between individuals within standard and deviant burials using biogeochemical analyses of human skeletal remains. The hypothesis that the individuals selected for apotropaic burial rites were non-local immigrants whose geographic origins differed from the local community was tested using radiogenic strontium isotope ratios from archaeological dental enamel. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios ( = 0.7112±0.0006, 1σ) from the permanent molars of 60 individuals reflect a predominantly local population, with all individuals interred as potential vampires exhibiting local strontium isotope ratios. These data indicate that those targeted for apotropaic practices were not migrants to the region, but instead, represented local individuals whose social identity or manner of death marked them with suspicion in some other way. Cholera epidemics that swept across much of Eastern Europe during the 17^th century may provide one alternate explanation as to the reason behind these apotropaic mortuary customs, as the first person to die from an infectious disease outbreak was presumed more likely to return from the dead as a vampire.     

Lombards on the Move – An Integrative Study of the Migration Period Cemetery at Szólád,Hungary

In 2005 to 2007 45 skeletons of adults and subadults were excavated at the Lombard period cemetery at Szólád (6^th century A.D.), Hungary. Embedded into the well-recorded historical context, the article presents the results obtained by an integrative investigation including anthropological, molecular genetic and isotopic (δ¹⁵N, δ¹³C, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) analyses. Skeletal stress markers as well as traces of interpersonal violence were found to occur frequently. The mitochondrial DNA profiles revealed a heterogeneous spectrum of lineages that belong to the haplogroups H, U, J, HV, T2, I, and K, which are common in present-day Europe and in the Near East, while N1a and N1b are today quite rare. Evidence of possible direct maternal kinship was identified in only three pairs of individuals. According to enamel strontium isotope ratios, at least 31% of the individuals died at a location other than their birthplace and/or had moved during childhood. Based on the peculiar ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio distribution between females, males, and subadults in comparison to local vegetation and soil samples, we propose a three-phase model of group movement. An initial patrilocal group with narrower male but wider female Sr isotope distribution settled at Szólád, whilst the majority of subadults represented in the cemetery yielded a distinct Sr isotope signature. Owing to the virtual absence of Szólád-born adults in the cemetery, we may conclude that the settlement was abandoned after approx. one generation. Population heterogeneity is furthermore supported by the carbon and nitrogen isotope data. They indicate that a group of high-ranking men had access to larger shares of animal-derived food whilst a few individuals consumed remarkable amounts of millet. The inferred dynamics of the burial community are in agreement with hypotheses of a highly mobile lifestyle during the Migration Period and a short-term occupation of Pannonia by Lombard settlers as conveyed by written sources.