Repair effect of diabetic ulcers with recombinant human epidermal growth factor loaded by sustained-release microspheres

In this study the w/o/w extraction-evaporation technique was adopted to prepare poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres loading recombinant human epidermal growth factor (rhEGF). The microspheres were characterized for morphology by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and particle size distribution. The release performances, the proliferation effects and therapeutic effects of rhEGF-loaded PLGA microspheres were all studied. The results showed that these spherical microspheres had a narrow size distribution and a high drug encapsulation efficiency (85.6%). RhEGF-loaded microspheres enhanced the growth rate of fibroblasts and wound healing more efficiently than pure rhEGF. The number of the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) in the epidermis layer with the microsphere treatment was significantly larger than those of the control groups. Overall locally sustained delivery of rhEGF from biodegradable PLGA microspheres may serve as a novel therapeutic strategy for diabetic ulcer repair.     

Dopamine‐loaded poly(d,l‐lactic‐co‐glycolic acid) microspheres: New strategy for encapsulating small hydrophilic drugs with high efficiency

The effective controlled release of small hydrophilic drugs from poly(d ,l ‐lactic‐co‐glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres has remained a challenge, largely due to the difficulty of loading a large amount of the drug inside the microspheres, owing to the hydrophilicity of the drugs. This study provides a new strategy for increasing encapsulation of small hydrophilic drugs inside PLGA microspheres by utilizing noncovalent, physical adsorption between hydrophilic drugs and emulsifying polymers of poly(vinyl alcohol) and pluronic. An order of magnitude increase in drug loading efficiency from 2.7 to 18.6% for dopamine, a model small hydrophilic drug, was achieved. The large amount of dopamine‐loaded PLGA formulation herein could be useful for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. © 2013 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 30:215–223, 2014     

A protein delivery system: biodegradable alginate-chitosan-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) composite microspheres

In the present study we developed alginate-chitosan-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) composite microspheres to elevate protein entrapment efficiency and decrease its burst release. Bovine serum albumin (BSA), which used as the model protein, was entrapped into the alginate microcapsules by a modified emulsification method in an isopropyl alcohol-washed way. The rapid drug releases were sustained by chitosan coating. To obtain the desired release properties, the alginate-chitosan microcapsules were further incorporated in the PLGA to form the composite microspheres. The average diameter of the composite microcapsules was 31+/-9microm and the encapsulation efficiency was 81-87%, while that of conventional PLGA microspheres was just 61-65%. Furthermore, the burst releases at 1h of BSA entrapped in composite microspheres which containing PLGA (50:50) and PLGA (70:30) decreased to 24% and 8% in PBS, and further decreased to 5% and 2% in saline. On the contrary, the burst releases of conventional PLGA microspheres were 48% and 52% in PBS, respectively. Moreover, the release profiles could be manipulated by regulating the ratios of poly(lactic acid) to poly(glycolic acid) in the composite microspheres.     

Long-term release of clodronate from biodegradable microspheres

This paper describes the formulation of a biodegradable microparticulate drug delivery system containing clodronate, a bisphosphonate intended for the treatment of bone diseases. Microspheres were prepared with several poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) copolymers of various molecular weights and molar compositions and 1 poly(D,L-lactide) (PDLLA) homopolymer by a water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) double emulsion solvent evaporation procedure. Critical process parameters and formulation variables (ie, addition of stabilizing agents) were evaluated for their effect on drug encapsulation efficiency and clodronate release rate from microparticles Well-formed clodronate-loaded microspheres were obtained for all polymers by selecting suitable process parameters (inner water/oil volume ratio 1∶16, temperature-raising rate in the solvent evaporation step 1°C/min, 2% wt/vol NaCl in the external aqueous phase). Good yields were obtained in all batches of clodronate microspheres (above 60%); drug encapsulation efficiencies ranged between 49% and 75% depending on the polymer used. Clodronate release from all copolymer microspheres was completed in about 48 hours, while those from PDLLA microspheres required about 20 days. The change of microsphere composition by adding a surfactant such as Span 20 or a viscosing agent such as carboxymethylcellulose extended the long-term release up to 3 months. Clodronate was successfully entrapped in PLGA and PDLLA microspheres, and drug release could be modulated from 48 hours up to 3 months by suitable selection of polymer, composition, additives, and manufacturing conditions. Published: July 11, 2001.     

Repair effect of diabetic ulcers with recombinant human epidermal growth factor loaded by sustained-release microspheres

In this study the w/o/w extraction–evaporation technique was adopted to prepare poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres loading recombinant human epidermal growth factor (rhEGF). The micro-spheres were characterized for morphology by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and particle size distribution. The release performances, the proliferation effects and therapeutic effects of rhEGF-loaded PLGA microspheres were all studied. The results showed that these spherical micro-spheres had a narrow size distribution and a high drug encapsulation efficiency (85.6%). RhEGF-loaded microspheres enhanced the growth rate of fibroblasts and wound healing more efficiently than pure rhEGF. The number of the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) in the epidermis layer with the mi-crosphere treatment was significantly larger than those of the control groups. Overall locally sustained delivery of rhEGF from biodegradable PLGA microspheres may serve as a novel therapeutic strategy for diabetic ulcer repair.     

Nanostructured microspheres produced by supercritical fluid extraction of emulsions

The system poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid/ piroxicam (PLGA/PX) was selected, as a model system, to evaluate the effectiveness of supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO(2)) extraction of the oily phase (ethyl acetate) from oil-in-water emulsions used in the production of polymer/drug microspheres for sustained drug release applications. The influence of process parameters like operating pressure and temperature, flow rate and contacting time between the emulsion and SC-CO(2) was studied with respect to the microsphere size, distribution and solvent residue. Different polymer concentrations in the oily phase were also tested in emulsions formulation to monitor their effects on droplets and microspheres size distribution at fixed mixing conditions. Spherical PLGA microspheres loaded with PX (10% w/w) with mean sizes ranging between 1 and 3 microm and very narrow size distributions were obtained due to the short supercritical processing time (30 min) that prevents the aggregation phenomena typically occurring during conventional solvent evaporation process. A solvent residue smaller than 40 ppm was also obtained at optimized operating conditions. DSC and SEM-EDX analyses confirmed that the produced microparticles are formed by a solid solution of PLGA and PX and that the drug is entrapped in an amorphous state into the polymeric matrix with an encapsulation efficiency in the range of 90-95%. Drug release rate studies showed very uniform drug concentration profiles, without any burst effect, confirming a good dispersion of the drug into the polymer particles.     

重组人粒细胞集落刺激因子缓释微球的研究

目的：研究固体／油／水法制备重组人粒细胞集落刺激因子缓释微球,为开发其缓释剂型进行初步研究。方法：以聚乳酸．聚羟乙酸共聚物（PLGA）为载体材料：用固体／油／水法和水／油／水法制备载rhG-CSF缓释微球;考察粒径大小、外观、包封率等理化性质;用MieroBCA法考察微球的体外释药特性及影响因素;用SEC-HPLC和MTT比色法初步评价了微球制备工艺过程对rhG-CSF稳定性的影响。结果：两种方法制得的微球形态圆整、分散性良好,包封率均超过80％。固／油／水法制得的微球体外释放在2周内可超过90％,而水／油／水法制得的微球在相同的时间内仅释放30％。对于固／油／水法制备过程,SEC-HPLC法测定蛋白无明显聚集体出现,MTT法测定蛋白活性无明显损失。结论：实验证明了固／油／水法制备的PLGA微球可以实现2周以上的体外缓释。     

Microencapsulation of insulin microcrystals

Insulin microcrystals were encapsulated (microcrystal/PLGA) within poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA 50:50) by the multiple emulsification solvent evaporation technique and compared with insulin solution microspheres (solution/PLGA) in terms of their morphology, size distribution, drug content, encapsulation efficiency, and stability of insulin during release.     

Formulation and in vitro transfection efficiency of poly (D, L-lactideco-glycolide) microspheres containing plasmid DNA for gene delivery

The stability, in vitro release, and in vitro cell transfection efficiency of plasmid DNA (pDNA) poly (D,L.-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) microsphere formulations were investigated. PLGA microspheres containing free and polylysine (PLL)-complexed pDNA were prepared by a water-oil-water solvent extraction/evaporation technique. Encapsulation enhanced the retention of the supereoiled structure of pDNA as determined by gel electrophoresis. PLL complexation of pDNA prior to encapsulation increased both the stability of the supercoiled form and the encapsulation efficiency. Free pDNA was completely degraded after exposure to DNase while encapsulation protected the pDNA from enzymatic degradation. Rapid initial in vitro release of pDNA was obtained from microspheres containing free pDNA. while the release from microspheres containing PLL-complexed pDNA was sustained for more than 42 days. Bioactivity of encapsulated pDNA determined by in vitro cell transfection using Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO) showed that the bioactivity of encapsulated pDNA was retained in both formulations but to a greater extent with PLL-complexed pDNA microspheres. These results demonstrated that PLGA microspheres could be used to formulate a controlledrelease delivery system for pDNA that can protect the pDNA from DNase degradation without loss of functional activity.     

Formation of bioerodible polymeric microspheres and microparticles by rapid expansion of supercritical solutions.

Polyhydroxy acids [poly(L-lactic acid) (L-PLA), poly(D,L-lactic acid) (DL-PLA), and poly-(glycolic acid) (PGA)], biocompatible and bioerodible polymers that are being investigated for controlled delivery of pharmaceuticals and are approved by the Food and Drug Administration for in vivo sutures and bone repair implants, have been dissolved in supercritical CO2 and precipitated by rapid expansion of the resulting supercritical solutions (RESS). The formation of these microparticles and microspheres is a first step toward the goal of producing, in a single processing step, drug-loaded polymeric microspheres for use in controlled release applications. Nucleation of poly(L-lactic acid) from CO2 and CO2-acetone mixtures produced microparticles and microspheres ranging from 4 to 25 microns. Microspheres (2-20 microns) were also obtained with chlorotrifluoromethane as solvent. Commercial L-PLA precipitated after extraction of low molecular weight oligomers showed degradation kinetics similar to that of the starting material. The precipitation of DL-PLA from CO2 produced irregular-sized particles (10-20 microns). PGA, a polymer insoluble in most organic solvents, was found to be soluble in supercritical CO2. Nucleation of PGA from CO2 produced both regular-sized particles and needles of 10-40-microns length. The total solubility of commercial L-PLA in supercritical CO2 at 250 bar and 55 degrees C decreased from 0.14 wt % to less than 0.05 wt % and then leveled off as the cumulative flow of CO2 per unit mass of L-PLA loaded in the extractor increased beyond 20 standard L of CO2/g of L-PLA. Use of acetone (1 wt %) as a cosolvent increased L-PLA solubility by approximately 500%.     

Selective delivery of rifampicin incorporated into poly(DL-lactic-co-glycolic) acid microspheres after phagocytotic uptake by alveolar macrophages, and the killing effect against intracellular Mycobacterium bovis Calmette-Guérin

Macrophages and their phagocytotic abilities play a dominant role for defense against infected organisms. However, Mycobacterium tuberculosis can survive in the phagosomes of macrophages. In this study, the effective delivery of a drug and the killing effect of tubercle bacilli within macrophages were investigated utilizing the phagocytotic uptake of rifampicin (RFP) that had been incorporated into poly(DL-lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) microspheres. The microspheres were composed of PLGA that had a monomer ratio (lactic acid/glycolic acid) of either 50/50 or 75/25. They had molecular weights from 5000 to 20,000, and diameters of 1.5, 3.5, 6.2 and 8.9 microm. The most significant factor for phagocytotic activity of macrophages was the diameter of the microspheres. By contrast, molecular weight and monomer ratio of PLGA did not influence phagocytosis. The amount of RFP delivered into cells was also investigated. RFP-PLGA microspheres composed of PLGA with a molecular weight of 20,000 and monomer ratio of 75/25 showed the highest amount of delivery (4 microg/1 x 10(6) cells). Fourteen days after infection, the survival rate of treated intracellular bacilli was 1% when compared with untreated cells. There was almost no killing effect of free RFP (4 or 15 microg/ml) on intracellular bacilli. In vivo efficacy of RFP-PLGA was also examined in rats infected with M. tuberculosis Kurono. Intratracheal administration of RFP-PLGA microspheres was shown to be superior to free RFP for killing of intracellular bacilli and preventing granuloma formation in some lobes. These results suggest that phagocytotic activity could be part of a new drug delivery system that selectively targeted macrophages.     

Production of microspheres with surface amino groups from blends of Poly(Lactide-co-glycolide) and Poly(epsilon-CBZ-L-lysine) and use for encapsulation.

Microspheres were formed from blends of the biodegradable polymer poly(DL-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) together with poly(epsilon-CBZ-L-lysine) (PCBZL) by a double-emulsification/solvent evaporation technique. The size of the microspheres formed by this method was dependent both on the total concentration of the polymers and on the ratio of PLGA to PCBZL. The use of the microspheres for encapsulation was demonstrated by the inclusion of a solution of Texas Red fluorescent dye. Lysine epsilon-amino groups on the surface of the microspheres were deprotected by acid hydrolysis or lithium/liquid ammonia reduction. Acid hydrolysis damaged the surface of the microspheres as assessed by scanning electron microscopy, whereas deprotection by lithium/ammonia produced less damage and allowed the retention of encapsulated dye solution. The surface lysine groups made available on the surface of the microspheres could be used to covalently link a variety of biologically active molecules to alter their in vivo properties and allow targeting to specific cell types.     

影响PLGA微球包封率和粒径相关因素研究进展

聚乳酸乙醇酸共聚物(PLGA)是一种可生物降解的高分子聚合物,具有良好的生物相容性,其降解产物为乳酸和乙醇酸,是机体正常代谢的中间产物,最终可分解为二氧化碳和水,并分别经肺和肾脏排出体外,对人体不产生危害,所以PLGA在微球制剂的制备中常作为首选载体。近年来PLGA微球制剂在医药领域有着飞跃发展,尤其是在抗肿瘤、免疫疫苗、蛋白给药、基因治疗、诊断试剂和细胞支架等方面显现出很大优势。而且已有许多PLGA微球获得美国FDA批准上市,临床应用也有令人满意的效果,未见报道有严重的不良反应。但现阶段国内生产的PLGA缓释微球的质量还有很多不足之处如微球粒径偏大、包封率和载药量偏低、突释过大等,有待进一步提高和改进。本文将综述在制备包裹水溶性药物的PLGA微球过程中相关因素如药物本身理化性质、制备方法、PLGA结构特点、有机溶剂等对微球粒径、包封率的影响,以期为提高以PLGA为药物载体的药效奠定良好的理论基础。     

Preparation and characterization of poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) microspheres for controlled release of human growth hormone

The purpose of this research was to assess the physicochemical properties of a controlled release formulation of recombinant human growth hormone (rHGH) encapsulated in poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) composite microspheres. rHGH was loaded in poly(acryloyl hydroxyethyl) starch (acHES) microparticles, and then the protein-containing microparticles were encapsulated in the PLGA matrix by a solvent extraction/evaporation method. rHGH-loaded PLGA microspheres were also prepared using mannitol without the starch hydrogel microparticle microspheres for comparison. The detection of secondary structure changes in protein was investigated by using a Fourier Transfer Infrared (FTIR) technique. The composite microspheres were spherical in shape (44.6±2.47 μm), and the PLGA-mannitol microspheres were 39.7±2.50 μm. Drug-loading efficiency varied from 93.2% to 104%. The composite microspheres showed higher overall drug release than the PLGA/mannitol microspheres. FTIR analyses indicated good stability and structural integrity of HGH localized in the microspheres. The PLGA-acHES composite microsphere system could be useful for the controlled delivery of protein drugs.     

Formulation of anastrozole microparticles as biodegradable anticancer drug carriers

The purpose of this study was to develop poly(d,1-lactic-coglycolic acid) (PLGA)-based anastrozole microparticles for treatment of breast cancer. An emulsion/extraction method was used to prepare anastrozole sustained-release PLGA-based biodegradable microspheres. Gas chromatography with mass spectroscopy detection was used for the quantitation of the drug throughout the studies. Microparticles were formulated and characterized in terms of encapsulation efficiency, particle size distribution, surface morphology, and drug release profile. Preparative variables such as concentrations of stabilizer, drug-polymer ratio polymer viscosity, stirring rate, and ratio of internal to external phases were found to be important factors for the preparation of anastrozole-loaded PLGA microparticles. Fourier transform infrared with attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR) analysis and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were employed to determine any interactions between drug and polymer. An attempt was made to fit the data to various dissolution kinetics models for multiparticulate systems, including the zero order, first order, square root of time kinetics, and biphasic models. The FTIR-ATR studies revealed no chemical interaction between the drug and the polymer. DSC results indicated that the anastrozole trapped in the microspheres existed in an amorphous or disordered-crystalline status in the polymer matrix. The highest correlation coefficients were obtained for the Higuchi model, suggesting a diffusion mechanism for the drug release. The results demonstrated that anastrozole microparticles with PLGA could be an alternative delivery method for the long-term treatment of breast cancer. Published: July 21, 2006     

Identification of chemically modified peptide from poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) microspheres under in vitro release conditions

The purpose of this research was to study the chemical reactivity of a somatostatin analogue octreotide acetate, formulated in microspheres with polymers of varying molecular weight and co-monomer ratio under in vitro testing conditions. Poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) and poly(D,L-lactide) (PLA) microspheres were prepared by a solvent extraction/evaporation method. The microspheres were characterized for drug load, impurity content, and particle size. Further, the microspheres were subjected to in vitro release testing in acetate buffer (pH 4.0) and phosphate buffered saline (PBS) (pH 7.2). In acetate buffer, 3 microsphere batches composed of low molecular weight PLGA 50∶50, PLGA 85∶15, and PLA polymers (≤10 kDa) showed 100% release with minimal impurity formation (<10%). The high molecular weight PLGA 50∶50 microspheres (28 kDa) displayed only 70% cumulative release in acetate buffer with significant impurity formation (∼24%). In PBS (pH 7.4), on the other hand, only 50% release was observed with the same low molecular weight batches (PLGA 50∶50, PLGA 85∶15, and PLA) with higher percentages of hydrophobic impurity formation (ie, 40%, 26%, and 10%, respectively). In addition, in PBS, the high molecular weight PLGA 50∶50 microspheres showed only 20% drug release with ∼60% mean impurity content. The chemically modified peptide impurities inside microspheres were structurally confirmed through Fourier transform-mass spectrometry (FT-MS) and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analyses after extraction procedures. The adduct compounds were identified as covalently modified conjugates of octreotide with lactic and glycolic acid monomers within polymeric microspheres. The data suggest that due to steric hindrance factors, polymers with greater lactide content were less amenable to the formation of adduct impurities compared with PLGA 50∶50 copolymers.     

Biological activity of rhBMP-2 released from PLGA microspheres

Human recombinant bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) has been proven effective in stimulating the regeneration of bone in both skeletal and extraskeletal locations. Through encapsulation within, and release from, biodegradable poly(DL-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres, a proven vehicle for sustained delivery of various proteins, the local concentrations of rhBMP-2 could be maintained at optimal levels to stimulate bone regeneration and remodeling at the site of healing in diverse clinical settings. Thus the purpose of this work was to investigate the encapsulation of rhBMP-2 in PLGA microspheres and its biologic activity upon release. Using in vitro tests in simulated body fluids, the effect of rhBMP-2 released from PLGA microspheres upon osteoblast cell cultures was found to be statistically similar to the effect produced by positive controls consisting of nonencapsulated aqueous rhBMP-2 in simulated body fluids. This clarifies an important step in skeletal tissue engineering strategies aimed at the use of encapsulated rhBMP-2 to stimulate bone regeneration and remodeling.     

PLGA:poloxamer and PLGA:poloxamine blend nanoparticles: new carriers for gene delivery

The main objective of the present work was the development of new nanoparticulate carrier systems for the delivery of plasmid DNA. These new carriers consist of a blend matrix formed by a poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) copolymer and polyoxyethylene derivatives. More specifically, we have prepared nanostructures with different PLGA:poloxamer and PLGA:poloxamine compositions by an optimized emulsification-solvent diffusion technique and studied the potential of these carriers for the encapsulation and controlled release of plasmid DNA. Depending on the particle composition, the encapsulation efficiency of the model plasmid pEGFP-C1 varied between 30% and 45%. All formulations provided continuous and controlled release of the plasmid with minimal burst effect. In addition, the release rate and duration was dependent on the composition of the particle matrix. Moreover, gel electrophoresis and cell culture (MCF-7 cell line) assays allowed us to confirm that the biologically active form of the plasmid was preserved during the particle preparation process and also during its release. Cell culture experiments also indicated that the new nanoparticles do not exhibit toxic effects on these cells at concentrations up to 5 mg/mL. Altogether, these results indicate that these composite nanostructures present a promising approach for the delivery of plasmid DNA.     

Co-lyophilization of bovine serum albumin (BSA) with poly(ethylene glycol) improves efficiency of BSA encapsulation and stability in polyester microspheres by a solid-in-oil-in-oil technique

The effect of the co-lyophilization of bovine serum albumin (BSA) with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) on the BSA encapsulation efficiency and formation of soluble BSA aggregates upon solid-in-oil-in-oil (s/o/o) encapsulation in poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) microspheres was investigated. Suspension of the lyophilized BSA-PEG formulations in methylene chloride produced small protein powder particles of less than 1 m diam. and this afforded high encapsulation efficiencies of typically 90% ameliorating one of the problems in s/o/o encapsulation. Formation of soluble BSA aggregates upon s/o/o encapsulation followed by 24 h in vitro release was between 5% and 22%, much lower than values of 59% reported for BSA without stabilizing excipients. Therefore, PEG also afforded BSA stabilization during s/o/o encapsulation. Sustained release occurred over ca. 2 months and was complete.     

Computational design of Phe-Tyr dipeptide and preparation,characterization, cytotoxicity studies of Phe-Tyr dipeptide loaded PLGA nanoparticles for the treatment of hypertension

Phe-Tyr dipeptide which was investigated in Wakame food with greatest ACE-inhibitory activity is used as a pharmaceutical drug for the treatment of hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetic nephropathy. To improve the bioavailability of Phe-Tyr, a delivery system based on poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles loaded with Phe-Tyr (Phe-Tyr-PLGA NPs) for treating hypertension and cardiovascular diseases was prepared in this study. In the experiments, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and Phe-Tyr dipeptide-loaded PLGA nanoparticles were prepared using the double emulsion (w/o/w) method. The characterizations of the nanoparticles were performed with a UV–vis spectrometer, the Zeta-sizer system, and FTIR spectrometer. The optimum size of the Phe-Tyr dipeptide-loaded PLGA nanoparticle was obtained with a 213.8 nm average particle size, and a 0.061 polydispersity index, ?19.5 mV zeta potential, 34% of loaded and 90.09% of encapsulation efficiency. From TEM analysis, it was clearly seen that the dipeptide loaded nanoparticles had the spherical and non-aggregated morphology and Phe-Tyr dipeptide loaded-PLGA nanoparticles were obtained successfully. Cell toxicity of nanoparticles at different concentrations was assayed with XTT methods on L929 fibroblast cells. This study determined that the nanoparticles have low toxicity at lower concentration and toxicity augmented with increasing concentration of dipeptide. To analyze the effect of solvents on structure of Phe-Tyr, Molecular dynamics simulation was performed with GROMACS program and molecular orbital calculations were carried out to obtain structural and electronic properties of dipeptide. Moreover, molecular docking calculations were also employed to model and predict protein–drug interactions.