胰蛋白酶消化强度优化获得高纯度体外培养的星形胶质细胞

本文旨在观察胰蛋白酶消化对体外培养的星形胶质细胞纯度的影响,优化星形胶质细胞培养方法。常规分离新生Sprague Dawley(SD)大鼠大脑皮质,分别用0.25%胰蛋白酶消化20、30和40 min制备单细胞悬液并接种细胞。细胞长满瓶底时进行恒温摇床振荡,前两个不同消化时间组再分为常规消化的对照组和二次胰蛋白酶消化组进行传代纯化。倒置相差显微镜观察细胞生长情况,MTT法检测细胞增殖,GFAP免疫荧光分析星形胶质细胞纯度并观察其形态,流式细胞术分析细胞凋亡。结果显示,胰蛋白酶消化20 min的细胞在原代培养9 d长满瓶底。而延长胰蛋白酶消化时间至30 min,细胞增殖更快,培养7 d即可铺满瓶底,且星形胶质细胞形态正常,纯度达(70.2±4.0)%,较20 min组有显著性提高(P0.05)。40 min组虽然星形胶质细胞纯度也较20 min组有所提高,但细胞增殖缓慢且损伤明显。在恒温摇床振荡结束后,进行二次胰蛋白酶消化可减少传代后杂细胞数量。二次胰蛋白酶消化组第一代(P1)的GFAP阳性率普遍高于各自对照组,其中30 min+二次胰蛋白酶消化组GFAP阳性率为(98.1±1.7)%,相当于20 min+对照组P3水平,且二者的凋亡率无显著性差异。以上结果表明,胰蛋白酶消化30 min+二次消化能有效提高星形胶质细胞纯度,缩短原代培养及纯化时间,是体外快速获得高纯度星形胶质细胞的有效方法。     

小鼠大脑皮质星形胶质细胞原代培养与鉴定

为探讨简便、高效的大脑皮质星形胶质细胞体外培养方法,本研究取新生24 h内的ICR小鼠大脑皮层,采用物理方法将其分成约1 mm^3,震荡过滤后进行培养。通过拍照的方式记录原代培养1 d、3 d、7 d、14 d、21 d、28 d、35 d和原代培养14 d后再传代培养14 d(记为P2-14 d)细胞形态;通过实时定量PCR和Western blotting比较原代培养1周、2周、3周、4周、5周和原代培养2周后再传代培养2周(即P2-2)的星形胶质细胞内胶质纤维酸性蛋白(glial fibrillary acidic protein,GFAP)基因和蛋白水平变化。选取GFAP、S100-β和谷氨酸转运蛋白(excitatory amino acid transporter 1,EAAT1)标记星形胶质细胞,微管相关蛋白(microtubuleassociated protein 2,MAP-2)、离子钙接头蛋白-1(ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1,Iba-1)和髓鞘相关糖蛋白(myelin associated glycoprotein,MAG)抗体分别标记神经元、小胶质细胞和少突胶质细胞。通过免疫荧光染色鉴定细胞种类及纯度。研究结果显示细胞生长良好,原代培养4周星形胶质细胞内GFAP比2周、3周、5周和传代培养2周的细胞更加稳定。经免疫荧光鉴定,星形胶质细胞纯度在95%以上。本实验采用相对较简单经济的方法培养出高纯度且生理状态相对较稳定的原代星形胶质细胞,该细胞模型不仅可以用于星形胶质细胞生理功能研究,还可以用于中枢神经系统相关疾病的体外研究。     

内皮素-1促进反应性星形胶质细胞增殖

目的利用成年SD大鼠脊髓损伤原代培养的反应性星形胶质细胞模型,探讨内皮素-1(ET1)与反应性星形胶质细胞增殖之间的关系。方法建立成年SD大鼠脊髓损伤原代培养的反应性星形胶质细胞模型,用100 n M ET1和5μM BQ788(内皮素受体B的拮抗剂)处理反应性星形胶质细胞48 h,通过免疫荧光的方法对各实验组中星形胶质细胞的标记分子Vimentin及Brdu进行检测,以确定ET1对反应性星形胶质细胞增殖的影响。结果 ET1组中星形胶质细胞的数量明显增加,Brdu阳性细胞占星形胶质细胞的平均百分比(19.41%)高于正常对照组(3.28%,P0.01);而ET1+BQ788组中Brdu阳性细胞数占星形胶质细胞的平均百分比为10.38%,明显低于ET1组(19.41%,P0.01)。结论在成年SD大鼠脊髓损伤原代培养的反应性星形胶质细胞模型中,ET1可刺激反应性星形胶质细胞的增殖,ET1受体endothelin B的拮抗剂BQ788可有效抑制ET1对反应性星形胶质细胞的促增殖效应。     

大鼠脑皮质星形胶质细胞的限制性细胞培养

介绍一种新的脑组织星形胶质细胞培养方法即限制性细胞培养（constraint cell culture）。常规分离纯化星形胶质细胞,将其低密度种植,维持在添中低量血清的化学成分限定的培养基中培养,并在长时期内不给予更换或补加培养液。利用波形蛋白(vimentin）和胶质纤维酸性蛋白（glial fibrary acidic protein）抗体的免疫荧光染色法鉴定观察不同培养时期的星形胶质细胞及其形态学变化。结果发现星形胶质细胞在最初的5天之内有一定程度的增殖,未出现过度增殖导致的细胞相互融合现象;接下来的3－5天内细胞形态明显分化,星形胶质细胞突起细长、胞体明显缩小、形态多样,最后细胞突起之间相互连接形成星形胶质细胞网络,并在相当长的时间内保持不变。实验结果显示在限制细胞种植密度和限制给予培养液的培养条件下星形质细胞的体外形态发育与在体的情形基本一致。提示该细胞培养方法可能有助于研究中枢神经系统中星形胶质细胞的生理功能。     

鱼藤酮帕金森大鼠多脑区铁积聚与胶质细胞激活

目的观察鱼藤酮帕金森病（Parkinson＇s disease,PD）大鼠铁积聚脑区胶质细胞是否激活。方法雄性Wistar大鼠予颈背部皮下注射鱼藤酮（2 mg/kg）葵花油乳化液,每日一次,连续注射4~6周制备PD模型,8周时做冰冻切片,行免疫组化染色观察PD大鼠铁积聚脑区小胶质细胞（OX42）和星形胶质细胞（GFAP）。结果 PD大鼠黑质致密部、海马齿状回颗粒细胞层、纹状体苍白球、小脑齿状-间位核及小脑面神经核中铁染色显著积聚区域内小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞染色积分光密度值较正常组明显增加（P〈0.05）。结论鱼藤酮PD大鼠铁积聚脑区小胶质细胞、星型胶质细胞均呈激活状态。     

RCMV感染星形胶质细胞对神经干细胞分化的影响

探讨大鼠巨细胞病毒（rat cytomegalovirus,RCMV）感染大鼠星形胶质细胞后,对神经干细胞分化的影响。原代分离培养新生大鼠星形胶质细胞和胚胎海马神经干细胞,将星形胶质细胞感染RCMV后和神经干细胞在Transwell24孔共培养体系下进行共培养,同时设对照组;用免疫荧光染色等方法检测神经干细胞与感染RCMV的星形胶质细胞共培养后,其分化细胞中神经元微管相关蛋白（microtubule-associated protein 2,MAP2）和星形胶质细胞胶质纤维酸性蛋白（glial fibril—lary acidic protein,GFAP）的表达。结果发现,感染RCMV的星形胶质细胞与神经干细胞共培养时,神经干细胞分化减慢,分化成的神经元和星形胶质细胞比率低于对照组,提示星形胶质细胞感染RCMV后可抑制神经干细胞的分化,可能与RCMV影响星形胶质细胞合成和分泌各种营养因子,干扰了神经干细胞的分化进程有关。     

模拟高原低氧对大鼠脑内神经胶质细胞的影响

目的：观察模拟高原低氧对成年大鼠脑内胶质细胞的影响。方法：大鼠在模拟海拔4000m高原低压舱内连续暴露1、3、7d,胶质原纤维酸性蛋白（GFAP）与Griffoniasimplicifolia同功凝集素（GSA-IB4）组织细胞化学分别显示星形胶质细胞与小胶质细胞。结果：GFAP与GSA-IB4阳性细胞在低氧后3．7d两个时相显著增多,主要分布于新皮层、海马、纹状体及室管膜下层等区域。结论：模拟高原低氧能引起大鼠脑内星形胶质细胞与小胶质细胞的显著活化。     

SD大鼠视网膜小胶质细胞原代培养方法的改良

目的对经典的原代视网膜小胶质细胞体外纯化培养方法进行简单的改良以提高细胞产量。方法在视网膜小胶质细胞原代培养过程中以McCarthy等的经典方法为基础,寻找适当的初始种植密度,并在初次振荡分离后继续培养以获得多次产出,使用免疫细胞化学染色方法进行小胶质细胞纯度鉴定。结果视网膜小胶质细胞原代培养最宜初始种植密度为1×106/mL,多次分离纯化获得的视网膜小胶质细胞均达到97%以上的纯度。结论视网膜小胶质细胞原代培养过程中,以适当的初始种植密度和多次振荡分离方法可在保证有效纯度的基础上提高细胞产量。     

神经元-小胶质细胞EphA4/ephrin通路调控小胶质细胞介导的缺血后炎性损伤

目的观察神经元-小胶质细胞间EphA4/ephrin信号通路在脑缺血后的炎性损伤中的作用及机制。方法建立神经元-小胶质细胞混合培养体系和糖氧剥夺再复氧(oxygen-glucose deprivation and reperfusion, OGD/R)模型,使用预聚集化的EphA4-Fc激动小胶质细胞ephrin配体,检测OGD/R后的细胞凋亡、小胶质细胞增殖和亚型极化以及小胶质细胞功能改变。结果 EphA4受体高表达于原代神经元,与对照组相比,预聚集化EphA4-Fc干预加重OGD/R导致的细胞凋亡,促进小胶质细胞增殖以及向M1型(促炎型)极化(炎症表型)。结论神经元-小胶质细胞间EphA4/ephrin信号通路通过调控小胶质细胞亚型极化参与脑缺血后的炎性损伤的过程。     

TRPV2激活对缺氧再灌注时体外培养星形胶质细胞神经生长因子释放的影响

神经生长因子对脑缺血后神经元的存活有重要意义。该研究观察了TRPV2激活剂2APB对体外缺血再灌注模型中原代培养大鼠大脑皮层星形胶质细胞神经生长因子释放的影响。将原代培养大鼠大脑皮层星形胶质细胞分为2APB组（0．5mmol／L）和对照组（不含2APB）,在糖氧剥夺情况下培养2h,然后恢复正常全培养基复氧培养48h。用Westem blot检测星形胶质细胞神经生长因子的表达水平;用ELISA检测星形胶质细胞条件培养液中神经生长因子的含量。结果表明,0．5mmol／L2APB可以诱导正常情况下及糖氧剥夺再灌注情况下体外培养星形胶质细胞NGF的合成和释放LP〈0．01）。此外,JNK阻滞剂可抑制糖氧剥夺再灌注情况下2APB诱导的星形胶质细胞神经生长因子的释放。综上．TRPV2激活可以影响糖氧剥夺再灌注情况下体外培养星形胶质细胞神经生长因子的合成和释放。TRPV2有可能成为脑缺血再灌注后的潜在治疗靶点。     

Isolation and Culture of Mouse Cortical Astrocytes

Astrocytes are an abundant cell type in the mammalian brain, yet much remains to be learned about their molecular and functional characteristics. In vitro astrocyte cell culture systems can be used to study the biological functions of these glial cells in detail. This video protocol shows how to obtain pure astrocytes by isolation and culture of mixed cortical cells of mouse pups. The method is based on the absence of viable neurons and the separation of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia, the three main glial cell populations of the central nervous system, in culture. Representative images during the first days of culture demonstrate the presence of a mixed cell population and indicate the timepoint, when astrocytes become confluent and should be separated from microglia and oligodendrocytes. Moreover, we demonstrate purity and astrocytic morphology of cultured astrocytes using immunocytochemical stainings for well established and newly described astrocyte markers. This culture system can be easily used to obtain pure mouse astrocytes and astrocyte-conditioned medium for studying various aspects of astrocyte biology.     

Astrocyte-derived interleukin 3 as a growth factor for microglia cells and peritoneal macrophages

Astrocytes have been shown to release an interleukin 3 (IL 3)-like factor that induces the expression of 20-alpha-hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase (20-alpha SDH) in nu/nu spleen cells, and the proliferation of the IL 3-dependent cell line 32DCL. We have investigated whether astrocyte-derived IL 3 supports growth of macrophages and their representatives in the brain, the microglia cells. Evidence for intercellular communication between murine astrocytes and macrophages became already detectable in co-culture experiments: astrocytes activated with endotoxin resulted in an increased growth of peritoneal macrophages on the astrocyte monolayer. Biochemical analysis of supernatants of activated astrocytes revealed that the IL 3-like factor that stimulated 32DCL cells and the expression of 20 alpha SDH also served as a growth factor for cultured peritoneal macrophages. The same results were obtained by using microglia cells isolated from primary brain cell cultures of newborn mice, which are characterized by their positive reaction for macrophage markers such as Mac-1 and nonspecific esterase. If secreted by reactive astrocytes in vivo, the IL 3-like factor may contribute to the accumulation of macrophages and microglia cells detected in brain lesions of patients with multiple sclerosis.     

Transforming growth factor-beta 1 in the rat brain: increase after injury and inhibition of astrocyte proliferation

Transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-beta 1) has been shown to up-regulate the synthesis of nerve growth factor (NGF) in cultured rat astrocytes and in neonatal brain in vivo (Lindholm, D., B. Hengerer, F. Zafra, and H. Thoenen. 1990. NeuroReport. 1:9-12). Here we show that mRNA encoding TGF-beta 1 increased in rat cerebral cortex after a penetrating brain injury. The level of NGF mRNA is also transiently increased after the brain trauma, whereas that of brain-derived neurotrophic factor remained unchanged. In situ hybridization experiments showed a strong expression of TGF-beta 1 4 d after the lesion in cells within and in the vicinity of the wound. Staining of adjacent sections with OX-42 antibodies, specific for macrophages and microglia/brain macrophages, revealed a similar pattern of positive cells, suggesting that invading macrophages, and perhaps reactive microglia, are the source of TGF-beta 1 in injured brain. Both astrocytes and microglia express TGF-beta 1 in culture, and TGF-beta 1 mRNA levels in astrocytes are increased by various growth factors, including FGF, EGF, and TGF-beta itself. TGF-beta 1 is a strong inhibitor of astrocyte proliferation and suppresses the mitotic effects of FGF and EGF on astrocytes. The present results indicate that TGF-beta 1 expressed in the lesioned brain plays a role in nerve regeneration by stimulating NGF production and by controlling the extent of astrocyte proliferation and scar formation.     

A Modified In vitro Method to Obtain Pure Astrocyte Cultures Induced from Mouse Hippocampal Neural Stem Cells Using Clonal Expansion

The aim of the present study was to produce astrocyte cultures of high purity from mouse hippocampal neural stem cells and to compare their in vitro properties with those isolated from enriched mixed glial cultures prepared from mouse hippocampus, which are commonly contaminated by microglia. We produced primary cultures of newborn mouse hippocampal neural stem cells, which have the potential to differentiate into astrocytes, neurons, and oligodendrocytes. We produced monoclonal neural stem cell colonies by limiting dilution. We induced astrocyte differentiation by plating the colonies on poly-l-lysine and culturing them in induction medium consisting of minimum essential medium/F12 supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 100 ng/ml ciliary neurotrophic factor. We then further purified the cells by differential adherence and shaking at a constant temperature, followed by a second round of limiting dilution. Immunocytochemistry for glial fibrillary acidic protein showed that our method yielded 99.4 ± 0.5% pure astrocytes, whereas traditionally enriched mixed glial cultures yielded 94.2 ± 2% pure astrocytes. Induced cells resembled primary astrocyte cultures in functional properties such as cell proliferation rates and lack of tumorigenicity and p53, and expression of epidermal growth factor receptor, bystin, and nitric oxygen synthase. Our novel method of culture and purification of neural stem cells can therefore be used routinely for the primary culture of highly purified astrocytes from mouse hippocampus.     

Purity,cell viability,expression of GFAP and bystin in astrocytes cultured by different procedures

Primary astrocyte cultures are the most commonly used in vitro model for neurobiological studies. We speculated that different protocols might induce differences not only in the percentage of astrocytes but also in their biological characteristics. In this study, we investigated the effects of four major protocols on the purity of astrocytes, cell viability, expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and bystin of cultured astrocytes using MTT assay, immunocytochemical staining, and Western blot analysis. We demonstrated that the purity of astrocytes (98.9%) generated by the subculture (SC) procedure is significantly higher than those generated by primary culture (PC), shaken once culture (SK‐1) or shaken twice culture (SK‐2). We also showed that expressions of GFAP and bystin in astrocytes that are purified by the SK‐2 or SK‐1 procedures are significantly higher than those in astrocytes prepared by PC or SC. In addition, astrocytes cultured by SK‐2 or SK‐1 have a higher level of cell viabilities at most time points after ischemia compared with astrocytes cultured by PC or SC. These suggested that physical stimulation induced by “shaken” or culture operation might be able to activate astrocytes and implied that different procedures induce differences not only in the purity but also in the biological characteristics of astrocytes, such as the percentage of activated astrocytes, GFAP, and bystin expressions and responses to ischemia. A more detailed analysis about the effect of “culture protocol factor” on the biological characteristics of astrocytes is absolutely needed. J. Cell. Biochem. 109: 30–37, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Biphasic regulation of tissue plasminogen activator activity in ischemic rat brain and in cultured neural cells: essential role of astrocyte-derived plasminogen activator inhibitor-1

In brain, the serine protease tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and its endogenous inhibitor plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) have been implicated in the regulation of various neurophysiological and pathological responses. In this study, we investigated the differential role of neurons and astrocytes in the regulation of tPA/PAI-1 activity in ischemic brain. The activity of tPA peaked transiently and then decreased in cortex and striatum along with delayed induction of PAI-1 in the inflammatory stage after MCAO/reperfusion injury. In cultured primary cells, glutamate stimulation increased tPA activity in neurons but not in other cells such as microglia and astrocytes. With LPS stimulation, a model of neuroinflammatory insults, robust PAI-1 induction was observed in astrocytes but not in neurons and microglia. The upregulation of PAI-1 by LPS in astrocytes was also verified by RT-PCR analysis as well as PAI-1 promoter reporter assay. Lastly, we checked the effects of hypoxia on tPA/PAI-1 activity. Hypoxia increased tPA release from neurons without effects on microglia, while the activity of tPA in astrocyte was decreased consistent with increased PAI-1 activity in astrocyte. Taken together, the results from the present study suggest that neurons are the major source of tPA and that the glutamate-induced stimulated release is mainly governed by neurons in the acute phase. In contrast, the massive up-regulation of PAI-1 in astrocytes during subchronic and chronic inflammatory conditions, leads to decreased tPA activity in the later stages of MCAO. Differential regulation of tPA and PAI-1 in neurons, astrocytes and microglia suggest more attention is required to understand the role of local tPA activity in the vicinity of individual cell types.     

Differential Response of Neural Cells to Trauma-Induced Swelling In Vitro

Brain edema and the associated increase in intracranial pressure are major consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI) that accounts for most early deaths after TBI. We recently showed that acute severe trauma to cultured astrocytes results in cell swelling. We further examined whether trauma induces cell swelling in neurons and microglia. We found that severe trauma also caused cell swelling in cultured neurons, whereas no swelling was observed in microglia. While severe trauma caused cell swelling in both astrocytes and neurons, mild trauma to astrocytes, neurons, and microglia failed to cell swelling. Since extracellular levels of glutamate are increased in brain post-TBI and microglia are known to release cytokine, and direct exposure of astrocytes to these molecules are known to stimulate cell swelling, we examined whether glutamate or cytokines have any additive effect on trauma-induced cell swelling. Exposure of cultured astrocytes to trauma caused cell swelling, and such swelling was potentiated by the exposure of traumatized astrocytes to glutamate and cytokines. Conditioned medium (CM) from traumatized astrocytes had no effect on neuronal swelling post-trauma, while CM from traumatized neurons and microglia potentiated the effect of trauma on astrocyte swelling. Further, trauma significantly increased the Na–K–Cl co-transporter (NKCC) activity in neurons, and that inhibition of NKCC activity diminished the trauma-induced neuronal swelling. Our results indicate that a differential sensitivity to trauma-induced cell swelling exists in neural cells and that neurons and microglia are likely to be involved in the potentiation of the astrocyte swelling post-trauma.     

Identification of genetic networks involved in the cell growth arrest and differentiation of a rat astrocyte cell line RCG-12

The purpose of the present study is to establish and characterize a conditionally immortalized astrocyte cell line and to clarify the genetic networks responsible for the cell growth arrest and differentiation. A conditionally immortalized astrocyte cell line, RCG-12, was established by infecting primary cultured rat cortical glia cells with a temperature-sensitive simian virus 40 large T-antigen. At a permissive temperature of 33 degrees C, the large T-antigen was expressed and cells grew continuously. On the other hand, the down-regulation of T-antigen at a non-permissive temperature of 39 degrees C led to growth arrest and differentiation. The cells expressed astrocyte-expressed genes such as glial fibrillary acidic protein. Interestingly, the differentiated condition induced by the non-permissive temperature significantly elevated the expression levels of several astrocyte-expressed genes. To identify the detailed mechanisms by which non-permissive temperature-induced cell growth arrest and differentiation, we performed high-density oligonucleotide microarray analysis and found that 556 out of 15,923 probe sets were differentially expressed 2.0-fold. A computational gene network analysis revealed that a genetic network containing up-regulated genes such as RB, NOTCH1, and CDKN1A was associated with the cellular growth and proliferation, and that a genetic network containing down-regulated genes such as MYC, CCNB1, and IGF1 was associated with the cell cycle. The established cell line RCG-12 retains some characteristics of astrocytes and should provide an excellent model for studies of astrocyte biology. The present results will also provide a basis for understanding the detailed molecular mechanisms of the growth arrest and differentiation of astrocytes.