沃尔巴克氏体感染对黑腹果蝇性腺和早期胚胎DNA 6mA去甲基化酶基因DMAD表达的影响

【目的】DNA甲基化是基因修饰的一种重要方式,主要可以形成5-甲基胞嘧啶(5m C)和6-甲基腺嘌呤(6m A)等。目前关于5m C的研究比较多,而关于6m A在真核生物中的研究则较少。沃尔巴克氏体Wolbachia是昆虫中最常见的共生菌之一,可通过多种方式操纵宿主生殖,其中最常见的就是引起精卵细胞质不亲和(cytoplasmic incompatibility,CI),即感染Wolbachia的雄性与未感染的雌性宿主交配后,胚胎致死,但其机制还不清楚。本研究拟从6m A甲基化的角度,探讨Wolbachia影响果蝇生殖的分子机制。【方法】以模式生物黑腹果蝇Drosophila melanogaster为材料,通过实时荧光定量PCR方法,检测Wolbachia感染对果蝇精巢、卵巢以及3个交配组[TT(对照,父母本都未感染),TW(父本未感染,母本感染,胚胎感染,可发育)和WT(CI,致死)]早期胚胎中DNA 6m A去甲基化酶基因DMAD的表达变化。【结果】Wolbachia感染可显著上调1日龄果蝇精巢中DMAD的表达水平,而对卵巢中DMAD的表达没有显著影响。在产卵后0.5 h(中囊胚过渡前)的胚胎中,CI胚胎的DMAD表达水平极显著高于可正常发育的胚胎(TT和TW);在3 h的胚胎(中囊胚过渡期)中,TW和CI胚胎中DMAD的表达量都极显著高于对照组;在6 h的胚胎(中囊胚过渡后)中,CI胚胎中DMAD的表达量相对最低。【结论】Wolbachia感染可能通过干扰宿主果蝇精巢中6m A甲基化水平对精子产生修饰,导致其与正常未感染的卵子受精后胚胎致死。     

我国三地区黑腹果蝇中Wolbachia的系统发育关系及其对宿主生殖的影响

【目的】Wolbachia 是广泛存在于节肢动物和丝状线虫体内的一类共生菌, 能够以多种方式对宿主产生影响。精卵细胞质不亲和（CI）是其引起的最普遍的表型, 即感染Wolbachia的雄性宿主与未感染或感染不同品系的雌性宿主交配后, 不能产生后代或后代极少, 而感染同品系Wolbachia的雌雄宿主交配后则能正常产生后代。我们前期研究发现, 湖北武汉、 云南六库和天津3个地区黑腹果蝇Drosophila melanogaster被Wolbachia感染。本研究旨在明确这3个地区黑腹果蝇中Wolbachia的系统发育关系及其对宿主生殖的影响。【方法】利用Clustal X软件对Wolbachia的wsp基因序列进行比对, 利用MEGA软件构建系统发育树。采用多位点序列分型（MLST）的方法对Wolbachia进行分型。通过区内交配和区之间杂交的方式研究不同地区黑腹果蝇体内Wolbachia 的关系及其对果蝇生殖的影响。【结果】湖北武汉、 云南六库和天津3个地区黑腹果蝇中感染的Wolbachia都是属于A大组的Mel亚群。这3个地区果蝇感染的Wolbachia的序列类型（ST）不同, Wolbachia之间存在一定的差异。湖北武汉和天津果蝇中的Wolbachia能引起强烈的CI表型, 而云南六库果蝇中的Wolbachia引起的CI强度相对较弱。武汉果蝇中Wolbachia不能完全挽救天津果蝇中Wolbachia引起的CI表型, 而天津果蝇中Wolbachia也不能完全挽救武汉果蝇中Wolbachia引起的CI表型。【结论】武汉和天津地区黑腹果蝇中的Wolbachia可能距离较远。Wolbachia的长期共生可能对黑腹果蝇的进化产生了一定的影响, 湖北武汉与云南六库的黑腹果蝇中感染的Wolbachia属于不同的序列类型, 这2个地区的黑腹果蝇已发生了一定的分歧, 产生了一定的生殖隔离。     

共生菌Wolbachia在宿主中诱导表达胞质不相容因子的研究进展

沃尔巴克氏体(Wolbachia)作为节肢动物的胞内共生菌,可以引起宿主产生雌性化、孤雌生殖、杀雄和胞质不相容性(cytoplasmic incompatibility, CI) 4种生殖表型。其中CI是最常见的现象,表现为受感染的雄性昆虫与未感染或感染不兼容Wolbachia的雌性昆虫交配时引起胚胎死亡;而雌性感染同种Wolbachia时胚胎能够正常发育。CI是由被称为CI因子(cifA和cifB)的Wolbachia基因对调控的。其中,CifB作为毒剂在雄性中表达诱导产生CI,而CifA作为解毒剂在雌性中表达拯救CI。本文综述了CI因子结构、功能和作用机制的研究,以期为未来利用Wolbachia和CI进行蚊媒疾病和农业虫害的防控奠定基础。     

Wolbachia引起黑腹果蝇产生“修饰-挽救”因子的初步探究

沃尔巴克氏体(Wolbachia)是一种广泛分布于昆虫体内的共生细菌,对宿主的生殖具有多种调控作用,其中,最常见的调控方式称为细胞质不亲和(Cytoplasmic Incompatibility,CI),即感染了Wolbachia的雄性宿主与未感染或感染不同品系Wolbachia的雌性宿主交配后,胚胎在发育早期死亡。关于CI产生的原因,目前人们认为是一种"精子修饰-卵子挽救"机制,本研究初步探索了黑腹果蝇中参与"修饰-挽救"机制的重要因子。本研究采用定量RT-PCR方法,检测了3种基因:yem-α(yemanuclein)、uif(uninflatable)、Prosα4T1(proteasomeα4 subunit,Testis-specific 1)在感染和未感染果蝇中的表达差异。结果发现,Wolbachia感染能够显著上调雌蝇中yem-α和uif的表达,并且显著下调雄蝇中yem-α的表达。尽管Prosα4T1在雄性果蝇体内特异表达,但是Wolbachia感染对Prosα4T1表达无明显影响。因此,yem-α可能是Wolbachia产生"修饰-挽救"机制的重要因子之一,Wolbachia可能通过调控果蝇体内yem-α的表达,影响卵子发生和精子发生进程,导致CI的产生。     

Wolbachia与昆虫精卵细胞质不亲和

Wolbachia是广泛分布在昆虫体内的一类共生菌,能通过多种机制调节宿主的生殖方式,包括诱导宿主精卵细胞质不亲和(CI)、孤雌生殖、雌性化、杀雄等,其中细胞质不亲和为最普遍的表型,即感染Wolbachia的雄性和未感染或感染不同品系Wolbachia的雌性宿主交配后,受精卵不能正常发育,在胚胎期死亡。多数CI胚胎在第1次分裂时,来自父本的染色质浓缩缺陷,导致父本遗传物质无法正常分配到子细胞中,因而引起胚胎死亡。守门员模型认为,产生CI可能需要有两种因子,其中之一使得精子发生修饰改变,导致受精后雄性原核发育滞后。第2种因子可能与Wolbachia的原噬菌体有关,在胚胎发育后期导致胚胎死亡。近期的研究已发现,在Wolbachia感染的宿主中,一些与生殖细胞发生和繁殖相关基因的表达发生了显著改变,Wolbachia可能因此对宿主的生殖产生重大影响,进而导致CI的产生。本文主要综述了CI的细胞学表型、解释CI的模型及其分子机理,向读者展示一个小小的细菌是如何通过精妙的策略影响昆虫宿主的繁殖,从而实现其自身的生存和传播的。     

二化螟碱性神经酰胺酶和中性鞘磷脂酶基因RNA干扰技术体系的优化

【目的】比较不同方法以及不同靶标基因的RNA干扰(RNA interference,RNAi)效率,建立并优化二化螟Chilo suppressalis碱性神经酰胺酶saCER和中性鞘磷脂酶snSMase基因的RNAi的技术体系。【方法】通过培养液浸泡法将果蝇Drosophila daCER基因的dsRNA导入果蝇S2细胞内;分别通过显微注射法和荧光纳米粒子介导喂食法将体外合成的二化螟saCER和snSMase基因的特异性双链RNA(dsRNA)导入二化螟3龄(注射法)和2龄(喂食法)幼虫体内,之后利用qPCR测定靶标基因的mRNA表达水平,比较不同方法对不同基因的RNA干扰效率。【结果】将果蝇S2细胞浸泡在浓度为15 ng/μL的含daCER dsRNA细胞培养液中培养72 h后,daCER基因的表达水平下降了约84%。dsRNA (5 000 ng/μL)注射二化螟3龄幼虫60 h后对saCER基因的干扰效率达到最高(41%),dsRNA (2 500 ng/μL)注射48 h后对snSMase基因的干扰效率最高(47%);给二化螟2龄幼虫喂食dsRNA(48μg/d)后,分别在第7天和第8天对saCER(32%)和snSMase(52%)基因达到最大干扰效率。对于aCER基因,果蝇S2细胞浸泡法与二化螟注射法和喂食法相比,干扰效率差异极其显著;使用相同方法,对saCER基因和snSMase基因的干扰效率无显著差异;对于二化螟的同一基因(saCER或者snSMase),注射法与荧光纳米粒子喂食法之间干扰效率也无显著性差异。【结论】碱性神经酰胺酶基因和中性鞘磷脂酶基因对导入dsRNA进行RNAi的方法较敏感,本研究建立并优化的显微注射法和荧光纳米粒子介导喂食法RNAi技术体系在鞘脂质代谢酶基因功能的基础研究中具有可行性。注射法和喂食法对二化螟幼虫aCER基因的干扰效率远低于浸泡法对果蝇S2细胞中这一基因的干扰效率,进一步证实二化螟血淋巴中的RNA酶对dsRNA的快速降解以及中肠围食膜的阻隔很大程度上削减了dsRNA进入二化螟细胞内发挥干扰作用。     

fruitless在桔小实蝇求偶和交配行为中的作用

【目的】fruitless (fru)是昆虫求偶和交配行为中的关键基因,但是其在桔小实蝇Bactrocera dorsalis中的具体功能尚不清楚。本研究旨在明确fru在桔小实蝇求偶交配行为中的作用,进一步明确fru的生物学意义。【方法】根据NCBI上桔小实蝇fru的预测序列设计两端引物,以桔小实蝇羽化10 d已交配的成虫头部cDNA为模板克隆fru基因的全长cDNA,并对其编码蛋白的结构域进行预测。通过实时荧光定量PCR(RT-qPCR)技术检测该基因在桔小实蝇交配前后表达量的变化。待合成fru基因的dsRNA后,注射到羽化9 d后的桔小实蝇雄成虫腹部进行RNAi,分别于注射后48 h和72 h取样,检测fru基因的相对表达量;并于RNAi后72 h进行求偶交配行为观察,测定桔小实蝇的交配频率和交配持续时间。【结果】克隆获得桔小实蝇fru的全长cDNA,长2 865 bp,编码954个氨基酸,预测蛋白分子量104.1 kD,等点为6.01。该基因所编码的蛋白具有特殊结构域,分别为一个BTB (Broad-complex, Tramtrack and Bric-a-bric)结构域和两个锌指(zinc finger)结构域。RT-qPCR结果表明,相比未交配的桔小实蝇成虫,fru基因在雄成虫头部中的表达量在与雌成虫交配后显著上升。相对于空白对照组(注射DEPC水)和阴性对照组(注射dsGFP),注射dsfru的RNAi处理组的雄性求偶时间延长(延长了25~35 min),且交配频率下降(降低了17%~22%),说明fru基因在雄性桔小实蝇的求偶交配行为中发挥着重要作用。【结论】本研究结果为明确fru在非模式昆虫桔小实蝇求偶交配行为中的功能提供参考,并为深入研究桔小实蝇的求偶交配行为和绿色防控提供了理论基础。     

美棘蓟马体内Wolbachia感染的时空分布

【目的】明确共生菌Wolbachia在美棘蓟马Echinothrips americanus体内的时空分布动态。【方法】基于Wolbachia的外膜蛋白基因(wsp)序列设计特异引物构建标准质粒,用绝对荧光定量PCR的方法测定美棘蓟马不同发育阶段(卵、若虫、预蛹、蛹、成虫)和雌雄成虫不同组织(头、胸、腹、腹末3节)中Wolbachia的wsp基因拷贝数,分析美棘蓟马共生菌Wolbachia的感染情况。【结果】美棘蓟马体内Wolbachia拷贝数随美棘蓟马发育进程逐渐增大,雌性成虫期Wolbachia拷贝数显著高于卵和若虫期;雌雄成虫不同组织中的拷贝数存在差异,雌性成虫腹部Wolbachia拷贝数显著高于头部、胸部和腹末3节,雄性成虫胸部和腹部Wolbachia拷贝数显著高于头部和腹末3节。美棘蓟马性别和组织与体内Wolbachia拷贝数存在显著的交互作用。【结论】本研究结果表明,美棘蓟马体内的Wolbachia感染状态不仅受宿主发育阶段的影响,而且与性别及分布位置有很大关系,为进一步了解该蓟马的发生、定植和扩散机理提供理论依据。     

海藻糖酶基因TRE2-like和TRE2在异色瓢虫羽化过程中的表达与功能

【目的】异色瓢虫Harmonia axyridis是一种重要的捕食性天敌昆虫,海藻糖在异色瓢虫的变态发育、羽化等整个生命过程都起着重要的作用。本研究以前期获得的类似膜结合型海藻糖酶(TRE2-like)与膜结合型海藻糖酶(TRE2)基因为基础,探讨在异色瓢虫羽化阶段这两个海藻糖酶的潜在功能,为阐明异色瓢虫从蛹发育到成虫时海藻糖代谢机制提供参考。【方法】根据TRE2-like和TRE2基因序列设计双链RNA(dsRNA)区域片段并合成对应的dsRNA,通过RNAi将其注射到异色瓢虫2日龄蛹中。采用实时荧光定量PCR(RT-qPCR)检测RNAi处理后羽化第1天的异色瓢虫成虫糖代谢相关基因的表达;同时采用蒽酮比色法、酶标法等分别测定RNAi处理后羽化第1天的异色瓢虫成虫主要糖类物质含量及TRE活性变化,并观察异色瓢虫羽化后的表型变化。【结果】结果表明,与对照组(dsGFP注射组)相比,异色瓢虫2日龄蛹被注射TRE2-like或TRE2 dsRNA后,其新羽化成虫体内TRE2-like和TRE2表达量均极显著下调,且少数个体出现了蜕皮与翅形成困难等畸形表型。可溶性海藻糖酶活性在注射dsTRE2-like后显著降低,膜结合型海藻糖酶活性在注射dsTRE2后显著降低;注射dsTRE2后糖原含量显著下降,注射dsTRE2-like后糖原和海藻糖含量显著下降,注射dsTRE2-like+dsTRE2后糖原和葡萄糖含量显著下降,且海藻糖含量极显著下降。注射dsTRE2-like, dsTRE2和dsTRE2-like+dsTRE2后可溶性海藻糖酶基因TRE1-1和TRE1-2表达下降或显著下降,而TRE1-5表达上升或显著上升,海藻糖合成酶(trealose-6-phosphate synthase, TPS)、糖原磷酸化酶(glycogen phosphorylase, GP)、糖原合成酶(glycogen synthase, GS)基因的表达均显著下调。【结论】TRE2-like和TRE2基因表达被抑制后,异色瓢虫海藻糖等代谢受到影响。研究结果为探究异色瓢虫体内膜结合型海藻糖酶的潜在功能和调控机制奠定了基础。     

注射dsRNA对飞蝗Knickkopf基因在mRNA和蛋白水平的沉默效率

【目的】本研究旨在评估dsRNA对飞蝗Locusta migratoria Knickkopf(Knk)基因mRNA和蛋白表达的沉默效率,以期为基于RNAi技术探索飞蝗体内基因功能的研究提供基础资料。【方法】选择飞蝗2龄第1天的若虫,将体外合成的飞蝗Knk基因dsRNA注射进入飞蝗体腔内,注射后48,72和96 h分别解剖试虫的腹部表皮,一半用于RT-q PCR方法检测其mRNA表达;另一半用于Western blot法检测其蛋白的表达量。【结果】dsRNA注射进入飞蝗体腔内48,72和96 h后,与对照相比,Knk mRNA水平相对表达量分别降低78.3%,96.2%和95.1%;Knk蛋白表达量分别降低61.2%,33.3%和52.9%。【结论】注射ds Knk能显著沉默飞蝗Knk基因mRNA水平和蛋白水平的表达,但mRNA水平的沉默效率高于蛋白水平。     

A genetic test of the mechanism of Wolbachia-induced cytoplasmic incompatibility in Drosophila

Cytoplasmic bacteria of the genus Wolbachia are best known as the cause of cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI): many uninfected eggs fertilized by Wolbachia-modified sperm from infected males die as embryos. In contrast, eggs of infected females rescue modified sperm and develop normally. Although Wolbachia cause CI in at least five insect orders, the mechanism of CI remains poorly understood. Here I test whether the target of Wolbachia-induced sperm modification is the male pronucleus (e.g., DNA or pronuclear proteins) or some extranuclear factor from the sperm required for embryonic development (e.g., the paternal centrosome). I distinguish between these hypotheses by crossing gynogenetic Drosophila melanogaster females to infected males. Gynogenetic females produce diploid eggs whose normal development requires no male pronucleus but still depends on extranuclear paternal factors. I show that when gynogenetic females are crossed to infected males, uniparental progeny with maternally derived chromosomes result. This finding shows that Wolbachia impair the male pronucleus but no extranuclear component of the sperm.     

Wolbachia在山楂双叶螨中的感染及对寄主生殖的影响

【目的】共生菌Wolbachia在多种叶螨寄主中引起细胞质不亲和及适合度改变,影响寄主的生物学特性。山楂双叶螨Amphitetranychus viennensis是重要的果树害螨,常暴发成灾。本研究旨在明确Wolbachia在山楂双叶螨中的感染情况及对寄主生殖的影响。【方法】采集自然种群的山楂双叶螨,运用多位点序列分型技术（multilocus sequence typing, MLST）对其体内Wolbachia感染率及株系进行分析;通过杂交试验及生物学观察,分析感染Wolbachia对山楂双叶螨单雌产卵量、后代孵化率、性比及死亡率的影响。【结果】山楂双叶螨自然种群感染一种株系的Wolbachia （wVie）,该Wolbachia株系与小黑花椿象Orius strigicollis和丽蝇蛹集金小蜂Nasonia vitripennis中的Wolbachia株系亲缘关系较近,而与叶螨属Tetranychus叶螨感染的Wolbachia株系亲缘关系较远。Wolbachia与4种分化较小的线粒体单倍型相关联。Wolbachia感染雌虫与不感染雌虫产卵量没有显著差异（P>0.05）。不感染雌虫与感染雄虫交配,卵孵化率显著低于其他杂交组合 (P<0.05),但孵化率仍达近75%。各交配组合的后代性比及死亡率变化不明显（P>0.05）。【结论】Wolbachia在山楂双叶螨种群中的侵染历史较短,对山楂双叶螨的产卵力、后代性比、死亡率没有影响。Wolbachia在山楂双叶螨中诱导产生弱的CI表型。     

Male age,host effects and the weak expression or non-expression of cytoplasmic incompatibility in Drosophila strains infected by maternally transmitted Wolbachia

In Drosophila melanogaster, the maternally inherited endocellular microbe Wolbachia causes cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) in crosses between infected males and uninfected females. CI results in a reduction in the number of eggs that hatch. The level of CI expression in this species has been reported as varying from partial (a few eggs fail to hatch) to nonexistent (all eggs hatch). We show that male age in this host species has a large impact on the level of CI exhibited and explains much of this variability. Strong CI is apparent when young males are used in crosses. CI declines rapidly with male age, particularly when males are repeatedly mated. Wolbachia from a Canton S line that was previously reported as not causing CI does in fact induce CI when young males are used in crosses, albeit at a weaker level than in other D. melanogaster strains. The strain differences in CI expression are due to host background effects rather than differences in Wolbachia strains. These results highlight the importance of undertaking crosses with a range of male ages and nuclear backgrounds before ascribing particular host phenotypes to Wolbachia strains.     

Increased male mating rate in Drosophila is associated with Wolbachia infection

The maternally inherited bacterium Wolbachia pipientis infects 25-75% of arthropods and manipulates host reproduction to improve its transmission. One way Wolbachia achieves this is by inducing cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), where crosses between infected males and uninfected females are inviable. Infected males suffer reduced fertility through CI and reduced sperm production. However, Wolbachia induce lower levels of CI in nonvirgin males. We examined the impact of Wolbachia on mating behaviour in male Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans, which display varying levels of CI, and show that infected males mate at a higher rate than uninfected males in both species. This may serve to increase the spread of Wolbachia, or alternatively, may be a behavioural adaptation employed by males to reduce the level of CI. Mating at high rate restores reproductive compatibility with uninfected females resulting in higher male reproductive success thus promoting male promiscuity. Increased male mating rates also have implications for the transmission of Wolbachia.     

Cytoplasmic incompatibility and sperm cyst infection in different Drosophila-Wolbachia associations

Wolbachia are a group of maternally transmitted obligatory intracellular alpha-proteobacteria that infect a wide range of arthropod and nematode species. Wolbachia infection in Drosophila in most cases is associated with the induction of cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), manifested as embryonic lethality of offspring in a cross between infected males and uninfected females. While the molecular basis of CI is still unknown, it has been suggested that two bacterial functions are involved: mod (for modification) modifies the sperm during spermatogenesis and resc (for rescue) acts in the female germline and/or in early embryos, neutralizing the modification. There is considerable variation in the level of incompatibility in different Wolbachia/host interactions. We examine the relationship between the levels of CI in a number of naturally infected and transinfected Drosophila hosts and the percentage of Wolbachia-infected sperm cysts. Our results indicate the presence of two main groups of Drosophila-Wolbachia associations: group I, which exhibits a positive correlation between CI levels and the percentage of infected sperm cysts (mod(+) phenotype), and group II, which does not express CI (mod(-) phenotype) irrespective of the infection status of the sperm cysts. Group II can be further divided into two subgroups: The first one contains associations with high numbers of heavily Wolbachia-infected sperm cysts while in the second one, Wolbachia is rarely detected in sperm cysts, being mostly present in somatic cells. We conclude that there are three requirements for the expression of CI in a host-Wolbachia association: (a) Wolbachia has to be able to modify sperm (mod(+) genotype), (b) Wolbachia has to infect sperm cysts, and (c) Wolbachia has to be harbored by a permissive host.     

Evidence for female mortality in Wolbachia-mediated cytoplasmic incompatibility in haplodiploid insects: epidemiologic and evolutionary consequences

Abstract.— Until now, only two Wolbachia-mediated cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) types have been described in haplodiploid species, the first in Nasonia (Insect) and the second in Tetranychus (Acari). They both induce a malebiased sex ratio in the incompatible cross. In Nasonia, CI does not reduce fertility since incompatible eggs develop as haploid males, whereas in Tetranychus CI leads to a partial mortality of incompatible eggs, thus reducing the fertility of females. Here, we study Wolbachia infection in a Drosophila parasitoid, Leptopilina heterotoma (Hymenoptera: Figitidae). A survey of Wolbachia infection shows that all natural populations tested are totally infected. Crosses between infected males and cured females show complete incompatibility: almost no females are produced. Moreover, incompatible eggs die early during their development, unlike Nasonia. This early death allows the parasitized Drosophila larva to achieve its development and to emerge. Thus, uninfected females crossed with infected males have reduced offspring production consisting only of males. Evidence of this CI type in insects demonstrates that the difference in CI types of Nasonia and Tetranychus is not due to specific factors of insects or acari. Using theoretical models, we compare the invasion processes of different strategies of Wolbachia: CI in diploid species, the two CI types in haplodiploid species, and parthenogenesis (the classical effect in haplodiploid species). Models show that CI in haplodiploid species is less efficient than in diploid ones. However, the Leptopilina type is advantageous compared to the Nasonia type. Parthenogenesis may be more or less advantageous, depending on the infection cost and on the proportion of fertilized eggs. Finally, we can propose different processes of Wolbachia strategy evolution in haplodiploid species from Nasonia CI type to Leptopilina CI type or parthenogenesis.     

Effects of Wolbachia on sperm maturation and architecture in Drosophila simulans Riverside

Wolbachia is an intracellular obligate symbiont, that is relatively common in insects and also found in some nematodes. Cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) is the most commonly expressed form, of several sex altering phenotypes caused by this rickettsial-like bacterium. CI is induced when infected males mate with uninfected females, and is likely the result of bacterial-induced modification of sperm grown in a Wolbachia-infected environment. Several studies have explored the dynamics of Wolbachia bacteria during sperm development in Drosophila. This study confirms and extends these earlier investigations of Wolbachia's distribution and proliferation in male germ cell lines. We examined Wolbachia population dynamics during testis development of Drosophila simulans (Riverside) by studying their distribution during the early mitotic divisions of secondary spermatogonial and subsequent meiotic cyst cells. Wolbachia are found in lower concentration in spermatogonial than in spermatocyte cells. Cytoplasmically incompatible crosses result in low levels of viable embryos despite the occurrence of fairly high levels of uninfected cysts. During meiotic divisions Wolbachia organize themselves at the poles during prophase and telophase but arrange themselves in equatorial bands during metaphase and anaphase. Moreover, during meiosis Wolbachia are asymmetrically divided between some daughter cells. There is no strong relationship between the fusome and Wolbachia and we have not found evidence that bacteria cross the ring canals. Wolbachia were observed at the distal and proximal sides of individualization complexes. Multiple altered sperm structures were observed during the process of individualization of infected sperm.     

Wolbachia transfer from Drosophila melanogaster into D. simulans: Host effect and cytoplasmic incompatibility relationships.

Wolbachia are maternally transmitted endocellular bacteria causing a reproductive incompatibility called cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) in several arthropod species, including Drosophila. CI results in embryonic mortality in incompatible crosses. The only bacterial strain known to infect Drosophila melanogaster (wDm) was transferred from a D. melanogaster isofemale line into uninfected D. simulans isofemale lines by embryo microinjections. Males from the resulting transinfected lines induce >98% embryonic mortality when crossed with uninfected D. simulans females. In contrast, males from the donor D. melanogaster line induce only 18-32% CI on average when crossed with uninfected D. melanogaster females. Transinfected D. simulans lines do not differ from the D. melanogaster donor line in the Wolbachia load found in the embryo or in the total bacterial load of young males. However, >80% of cysts are infected by Wolbachia in the testes of young transinfected males, whereas only 8% of cysts are infected in young males from the D. melanogaster donor isofemale line. This difference might be caused by physiological differences between hosts, but it might also involve tissue-specific control of Wolbachia density by D. melanogaster. The wDm-transinfected D. simulans lines are unidirectionally incompatible with strains infected by the non-CI expressor Wolbachia strains wKi, wMau, or wAu, and they are bidirectionally incompatible with strains infected by the CI-expressor Wolbachia strains wHa or wNo. However, wDm-infected males do not induce CI toward females infected by the CI-expressor strain wRi, which is found in D. simulans continental populations, while wRi-infected males induce partial CI toward wDm-infected females. This peculiar asymmetrical pattern could reflect an ongoing divergence between the CI mechanisms of wRi and wDm. It would also confirm other results indicating that the factor responsible for CI induction in males is distinct from the factor responsible for CI rescue in females.