癌症高表达蛋白——Hecl在纺锤体组装检查点中的作用

细胞增殖依赖于细胞分裂前染色体的复制及随后的姐妹染色单体分离到达两极。纺锤体组装检查点具有确保染色体信息传递保真性的作用,检查点的缺失可能导致染色体的分离异常和肿瘤形成。癌症高表达蛋白(Hecl)通过与调控G2／M期的蛋白间的相互作用而在染色体的分离中发挥重要作用。Hecl与Nuf2的复合物,在G2／M期与动粒相结合,Hecl的缺失将导致严重的染色体分离错误。Hecl具有召集Mpsl和Mad1／Mad2复合物结合到动粒上的作用,这种结合可以激活纺锤体组装检查点途径中非常重要的APC^cdc20途径。但是Hecl、Mpsl、Madl三者之间的相互作用仍未明了。Hecl还可以通过与26S蛋白酶复合物的不同亚基结合调控其功能。Hecl是一种丝氨酸磷酸化蛋白,其磷酸化是由Nek2在G2／M期完成的。     

Ndc80复合体在外层动粒中的作用

动粒是参与有丝分裂过程中染色体分离的蛋白的附着支架。结构保守的Ndc80复合体位于动粒的外层,连接动粒和微管,与动粒-微管连接的稳定性有关。Aurora B/Ipl1激酶参与纠正动粒-微管的错误连接。Ndc80复合体对纺锤体组装检查点的功能非常重要。本文主要介绍了Ndc80复合体的研究进展。     

细胞动粒蛋白Hec1启动子的结构及功能分析

细胞的分裂是一个严格调控,高度有序的过程.为了将复制后的染色体均匀、准确地传递给两个子细胞,细胞在分裂中后期受到纺锤体检验点的严格监控.Hec1定位于动粒,是纺锤体检验点调控的关键蛋白之一,它通过螺旋 螺旋结构域与其他动粒蛋白相互作用调节姐妹染色体的精确分离.为研究Hec1转录水平的调控机理,采用BLAST工具,从GenBank 中搜索到了人Hec1基因上游的序列,并利用在线工具http://mbs.cbrc.jp/research/db/TFSEARCH.html提供的转录因子结合位点搜索引擎,对其5′启动子调节区段进行了分析.分析结果表明：在Hec1基因上游-200～-1序列内,存在E2F、ATF4和cAMP应答元件结合蛋白（CREB）等转录因子调控元件.在结构分析的基础上,提取HeLa细胞基因组DNA,用PCR方法克隆了Hec1基因启动子,并构建了多个含启动子不同区段的pGL3荧光素酶报告基因表达质粒.瞬时转染HeLa细胞后的结果表明,-70～－63以及－155～－144之间的启动子区对维持荧光素酶活性最为关键.凝胶迁移实验证明,这两个区段分别能够和转录因子CREB以及ATF4结合.随后,采用野生型的以及含有133位磷酸化位点突变的CREB转染HeLa细胞,通过荧光定量PCR实验发现,Hec1的表达水平分别出现明显上升和下降.该结果表明,Hec1表达的调控是通过CREB的活化来完成的.     

染色体移动复合物的结构、定位与功能

染色体移动复合物主要由蛋白激酶Aurora B、内层着丝粒蛋白、存活蛋白及蛋白Borealin组成。它在细胞分裂的不同阶段,能及时精确地定位到相关部位并作用于相应底物;具有调节染色质组蛋白磷酸化,控制姐妹染色单体的粘着、分离,参与分裂纺锤体组装及其对染色体的捕捉,纠正动粒与微管间不适当附着,将染色体精确分配到子细胞及促进胞浆分离等重要功能。文章简要介绍了染色体移动复合物的结构成分,在染色体臂部、内层着丝粒及纺锤体中区的定位过程,及其定位在不同部位的相应功能。     

Skp2参与HeLa细胞G_2/M周期检查点的调控

具癌基因特性的Skp2在大多数肿瘤组织和肿瘤细胞中异常高表达,它作为SCFSkp2复合物的底物识别亚基调控p27KIP蛋白的稳定性而促进细胞G1/S期转换.为进一步明确Skp2与G2/M周期检查点的关系,在HeLa细胞中过表达Skp2以及通过反义寡核苷酸抑制Skp2表达.结果发现:Skp2能促进细胞周期运转,表现为S期细胞增多和G2/M期细胞减少,其中F-box结构域具有重要的功能意义;反义寡核苷酸抑制Skp2表达后,HeLa细胞发生显著的G2/M期阻滞;MTT检测结果表明,400nmol/L的Skp2的反义寡核苷酸能明显抑制HeLa细胞的增殖活性;Western印迹结果表明,HeLa细胞中Skp2可能通过负调控p21WAF的稳定性来参与G2/M检查点调控,这在用放线菌素D处理HeLa细胞的实验中得到验证.这些结果初步揭示了Skp2参与HeLa细胞G2/M周期检查点调控的分子机制.     

动粒蛋白CENP-K和CENP-H可形成异源超螺旋复合体

动粒（kinetochore）是位于纺锤体主缢痕处表层的特化结构.它通过与纺锤体微管的结合,在有丝分裂期拉动染色体向两极运动,同时具有机械力产生和与中期检验点有关的功能,是细胞中机械强度最高的结构之一.动粒由一个很大的复杂的蛋白网络组成,目前了解较清楚的核心蛋白网络是KMN网络（K,KNL1;M,Mis12复合物;N,NDC80复合物）和CCAN网络（常驻性着丝粒相关网络,constitutive centromere-associated network）,但对其蛋白组分之间相互作用的分子机制仍然了解很少.本研究采用串联亲和纯化（TAP）技术在稳定表达TAP-CENP-K的HEK293细胞中寻找CENP-K的稳定蛋白复合体,结果表明CENP-K和CENP-H形成强稳定的（耐受750mmol/L盐浓度）、比例接近11的蛋白复合体.经过预测,CENP-K与CENP-H都是超螺旋（coiled-coil）蛋白.CENP-K与CENP-H片段进行的体外Pull-down实验也证明了两者的N端片段之间以及C端片段之间分别存在直接的相互作用,并且C端片段之间的相互作用更明显.综上所述,CENP-H与CENP-K之间的强相互作用可能是通过形成异源超螺旋复合体实现的,可能在介导动粒与微管连接中起到重要的作用。     

CDC20在细胞分裂周期中的作用

CDC20是细胞周期相关蛋白之一。在细胞分裂周期中,CDC20是纺锤体组装检查点的靶向物和有丝分裂后期促进复合体的正调控因子,在引导细胞周期中某些蛋白质的泛素化降解和确保染色体正常分离的过程中起着重要的作用。     

纺锤体组装检控点

细胞有丝分裂过程中,纺锤体组装检控点监控着染色体在赤道板的队列和向纺锤体两极的分离,确保动粒-微管的黏附和有丝分裂器的完整,使所有的染色体都置于赤道板并双极定向后才进入后期,保证遗传物质均等地分配给两个子代细胞。纺锤体组装检控点缺陷将导致非整倍体的出现,并与一些肿瘤的发生密切相关。现就近年来纺锤体组装检控点蛋白以及纺锤体组装检控点功能缺陷与肿瘤的关系方面的研究进展作一简要综述。     

敲除 Sam68 基因导致白血病细胞系细胞生长迟缓和 G2/M 期延长

RNA 结合蛋白 Sam68 是细胞有丝分裂期 Src 酪氨酸磷酸化的靶蛋白 . 尽管确切机制尚不清楚,一些人还是认为 Sam68 可通过调控 RNA 的代谢参与细胞周期调控 . 利用基因打靶技术,在 DT40 细胞分离出 Sam68 基因缺失的细胞系 . 利用该细胞系,进行 Sam68 的功能解析 . 与野生型细胞系相比, Sam68 基因缺失细胞表现出明显的生长速度迟缓 . 通过细胞周期研究揭示 , 这些细胞生长速度延迟是由于细胞周期中的 G2/M 期延长 . 因为参与细胞周期 G2/M 期调控的周期因子 Cdc2 激酶的活性没有改变,所以提示 Sam68 不依赖于 Cdc2 激酶的活性参与细胞周期中 G2/M 期调控 .     

SKA2在肿瘤发生发展中的作用及其调控机制

纺锤体和动粒相关蛋白2(spindle and kinetochore associated 2,SKA2)是2006年首次发现的参与纺锤体与动粒相关复合物组成的重要蛋白质。传统观点认为,SKA2参与细胞周期的调控。新近研究发现,ska2在肿瘤细胞和组织中异常表达,发挥着癌基因的作用,且在不同肿瘤中存在多种调控机制。该文结合我们的实验结果,对SKA2在肿瘤发生、发展中的作用及其调控机制进行综述,为癌基因ska2的深入研究及肿瘤的靶向治疗提供新的思路。     

Phosphorylation of the mitotic regulator protein Hec1 by Nek2 kinase is essential for faithful chromosome segregation

Hec1 (highly expressed in cancer) plays essential roles in chromosome segregation by interacting through its coiled-coil domains with several proteins that modulate the G(2)/M phase. Hec1 localizes to kinetochores, and its inactivation either by genetic deletion or antibody neutralization leads to severe and lethal chromosomal segregation errors, indicating that Hec1 plays a critical role in chromosome segregation. The mechanisms by which Hec1 is regulated, however, are not known. Here we show that human Hec1 is a serine phosphoprotein and that it binds specifically to the mitotic regulatory kinase Nek2 during G(2)/M. Nek2 phosphorylates Hec1 on serine residue 165, both in vitro and in vivo. Yeast cells are viable without scNek2/Kin3, a close structural homolog of Nek2 that binds to both human and yeast Hec1. When the same yeasts carry an scNek2/Kin3 (D55G) or Nek2 (E38G) mutation to mimic a similar temperature-sensitive nima mutation in Aspergillus, their growth is arrested at the nonpermissive temperature, because the scNek2/Kin3 (D55G) mutant binds to Hec1 but fails to phosphorylate it. Whereas wild-type human Hec1 rescues lethality resulting from deletion of Hec1 in Saccharomyces cerevesiae, a human Hec1 mutant or yeast Hec1 mutant changing Ser(165) to Ala or yeast Hec1 mutant changing Ser(201) to Ala does not. Mutations changing the same Ser residues to Glu, to mimic the negative charge created by phosphorylation, partially rescue lethality but result in a high incidence of errors in chromosomal segregation. These results suggest that cell cycle-regulated serine phosphorylation of Hec1 by Nek2 is essential for faithful chromosome segregation.     

Phosphorylation of the Ndc80 complex protein, HEC1, by Nek2 kinase modulates chromosome alignment and signaling of the spindle assembly checkpoint

The spindle assemble checkpoint (SAC) is critical for accurate chromosome segregation. Hec1 contributes to chromosome segregation in part by mediating SAC signaling and chromosome alignment. However, the molecular mechanism by which Hec1 modulates checkpoint signaling and alignment remains poorly understood. We found that Hec1 serine 165 (S165) is preferentially phosphorylated at kinetochores. Phosphorylated Hec1 serine 165 (pS165) specifically localized to kinetochores of misaligned chromosomes, showing a spatiotemporal distribution characteristic of SAC molecules. Expressing an RNA interference (RNAi)-resistant S165A mutant in Hec1-depleted cells permitted normal progression to metaphase, but accelerated the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. The S165A cells were defective in Mad1 and Mad2 localization to kinetochores, regardless of attachment status. These cells often entered anaphase with lagging chromosomes and elicited increased segregation errors and cell death. In contrast, expressing S165E mutant in Hec1-depleted cells triggered defective chromosome alignment and severe mitotic arrest associated with increased Mad1/Mad2 signals at prometaphase kinetochores. A small portion of S165E cells eventually bypassed the SAC but showed severe segregation errors. Nek2 is the primary kinase responsible for kinetochore pS165, while PP1 phosphatase may dephosphorylate pS165 during SAC silencing. Taken together, these results suggest that modifications of Hec1 S165 serve as an important mechanism in modulating SAC signaling and chromosome alignment.     

Phosphorylation of Microtubule-binding Protein Hec1 by Mitotic Kinase Aurora B Specifies Spindle Checkpoint Kinase Mps1 Signaling at the Kinetochore

The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a quality control device to ensure accurate chromosome attachment to spindle microtubule for equal segregation of sister chromatid. Aurora B is essential for SAC function by sensing chromosome bi-orientation via spatial regulation of kinetochore substrates. However, it has remained elusive as to how Aurora B couples kinetochore-microtubule attachment to SAC signaling. Here, we show that Hec1 interacts with Mps1 and specifies its kinetochore localization via its calponin homology (CH) domain and N-terminal 80 amino acids. Interestingly, phosphorylation of the Hec1 by Aurora B weakens its interaction with microtubules but promotes Hec1 binding to Mps1. Significantly, the temporal regulation of Hec1 phosphorylation orchestrates kinetochore-microtubule attachment and Mps1 loading to the kinetochore. Persistent expression of phosphomimetic Hec1 mutant induces a hyperactivation of SAC, suggesting that phosphorylation-elicited Hec1 conformational change is used as a switch to orchestrate SAC activation to concurrent destabilization of aberrant kinetochore attachment. Taken together, these results define a novel role for Aurora B-Hec1-Mps1 signaling axis in governing accurate chromosome segregation in mitosis.     

Release of Mps1 from kinetochores is crucial for timely anaphase onset

Mps1 kinase activity is required for proper chromosome segregation during mitosis through its involvements in microtubule-chromosome attachment error correction and the mitotic checkpoint. Mps1 dynamically exchanges on unattached kinetochores but is largely removed from kinetochores in metaphase. Here we show that Mps1 promotes its own turnover at kinetochores and that removal of Mps1 upon chromosome biorientation is a prerequisite for mitotic checkpoint silencing. Inhibition of Mps1 activity increases its half-time of recovery at unattached kinetochores and causes accumulation of Mps1 protein at these sites. Strikingly, preventing dissociation of active Mps1 from kinetochores delays anaphase onset despite normal chromosome attachment and alignment, and high interkinetochore tension. This delay is marked by continued recruitment of Mad1 and Mad2 to bioriented chromosomes and is attenuated by Mad2 depletion, indicating chronic engagement of the mitotic checkpoint in metaphase. We propose that release of Mps1 from kinetochores is essential for mitotic checkpoint silencing and a fast metaphase-to-anaphase transition.     

Chemical Genetic Inhibition of Mps1 in Stable Human Cell Lines Reveals Novel Aspects of Mps1 Function in Mitosis

Background

Proper execution of chromosome segregation relies on tight control of attachment of chromosomes to spindle microtubules. This is monitored by the mitotic checkpoint that allows chromosome segregation only when all chromosomes are stably attached. Proper functioning of the attachment and checkpoint processes is thus important to prevent chromosomal instability. Both processes rely on the mitotic kinase Mps1.

Principal Finding

We present here two cell lines in which endogenous Mps1 has been stably replaced with a mutant kinase (Mps1-as) that is specifically inhibited by bulky PP1 analogs. Mps1 inhibition in these cell lines is highly penetrant and reversible. Timed inhibition during bipolar spindle assembly shows that Mps1 is critical for attachment error-correction and confirms its role in Aurora B regulation. We furthermore show that Mps1 has multiple controls over mitotic checkpoint activity. Mps1 inhibition precludes Mad1 localization to unattached kinetochores but also accelerates mitosis. This acceleration correlates with absence of detectable mitotic checkpoint complex after Mps1 inhibition. Finally, we show that short-term inhibition of Mps1 catalytic activity is sufficient to kill cells.

Conclusions/Significance

Mps1 is involved in the regulation of multiple key processes that ensure correct chromosome segregation and is a promising target for inhibition in anti-cancer strategies. We report here two cell lines that allow specific and highly penetrant inhibition of Mps1 in a reproducible manner through the use of chemical genetics. Using these cell lines we confirm previously suggested roles for Mps1 activity in mitosis, present evidence for novel functions and examine cell viability after short and prolonged Mps1 inhibition. These cell lines present the best cellular model system to date for investigations into Mps1 biology and the effects of penetrance and duration of Mps1 inhibition on cell viability.     

Regulation of kinetochore recruitment of two essential mitotic spindle checkpoint proteins by Mps1 phosphorylation

Mps1 is a protein kinase that plays essential roles in spindle checkpoint signaling. Unattached kinetochores or lack of tension triggers recruitment of several key spindle checkpoint proteins to the kinetochore, which delays anaphase onset until proper attachment or tension is reestablished. Mps1 acts upstream in the spindle checkpoint signaling cascade, and kinetochore targeting of Mps1 is required for subsequent recruitment of Mad1 and Mad2 to the kinetochore. The mechanisms that govern recruitment of Mps1 or other checkpoint proteins to the kinetochore upon spindle checkpoint activation are incompletely understood. Here, we demonstrate that phosphorylation of Mps1 at T12 and S15 is required for Mps1 recruitment to the kinetochore. Mps1 kinetochore recruitment requires its kinase activity and autophosphorylation at T12 and S15. Mutation of T12 and S15 severely impairs its kinetochore association and markedly reduces recruitment of Mad2 to the kinetochore. Our studies underscore the importance of Mps1 autophosphorylation in kinetochore targeting and spindle checkpoint signaling.     

A Highlights from MBoC Selection: Mad2, Bub3, and Mps1 regulate chromosome segregation and mitotic synchrony in Giardia intestinalis,a binucleate protist lacking an anaphase-promoting complex

The binucleate pathogen Giardia intestinalis is a highly divergent eukaryote with a semiopen mitosis, lacking an anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) and many of the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC) proteins. However, Giardia has some MCC components (Bub3, Mad2, and Mps1) and proteins from the cohesin system (Smc1 and Smc3). Mad2 localizes to the cytoplasm, but Bub3 and Mps1 are either located on chromosomes or in the cytoplasm, depending on the cell cycle stage. Depletion of Bub3, Mad2, or Mps1 resulted in a lowered mitotic index, errors in chromosome segregation (including lagging chromosomes), and abnormalities in spindle morphology. During interphase, MCC knockdown cells have an abnormal number of nuclei, either one nucleus usually on the left-hand side of the cell or two nuclei with one mislocalized. These results suggest that the minimal set of MCC proteins in Giardia play a major role in regulating many aspects of mitosis, including chromosome segregation, coordination of mitosis between the two nuclei, and subsequent nuclear positioning. The critical importance of MCC proteins in an organism that lacks their canonical target, the APC/C, suggests a broader role for these proteins and hints at new pathways to be discovered.     

Dynamic Autophosphorylation of Mps1 Kinase Is Required for Faithful Mitotic Progression

The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a surveillance mechanism monitoring cell cycle progression, thus ensuring accurate chromosome segregation. The conserved mitotic kinase Mps1 is a key component of the SAC. The human Mps1 exhibits comprehensive phosphorylation during mitosis. However, the related biological relevance is largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that 8 autophosphorylation sites within the N-terminus of Mps1, outside of the catalytic domain, are involved in regulating Mps1 kinetochore localization. The phospho-mimicking mutant of the 8 autophosphorylation sites impairs Mps1 localization to kinetochore and also affects the kinetochore recruitment of BubR1 and Mad2, two key SAC effectors, subsequently leading to chromosome segregation errors. Interestingly, the non-phosphorylatable mutant of the 8 autophosphorylation sites enhances Mps1 kinetochore localization and delays anaphase onset. We further show that the Mps1 phospho-mimicking and non-phosphorylatable mutants do not affect metaphase chromosome congression. Thus, our results highlight the importance of dynamic autophosphorylation of Mps1 in regulating accurate chromosome segregation and ensuring proper mitotic progression.     

Mps1Mph1 Kinase Phosphorylates Mad3 to Inhibit Cdc20Slp1-APC/C and Maintain Spindle Checkpoint Arrests

The spindle checkpoint is a mitotic surveillance system which ensures equal segregation of sister chromatids. It delays anaphase onset by inhibiting the action of the E3 ubiquitin ligase known as the anaphase promoting complex or cyclosome (APC/C). Mad3/BubR1 is a key component of the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC) which binds and inhibits the APC/C early in mitosis. Mps1^Mph1 kinase is critical for checkpoint signalling and MCC-APC/C inhibition, yet few substrates have been identified. Here we identify Mad3 as a substrate of fission yeast Mps1^Mph1 kinase. We map and mutate phosphorylation sites in Mad3, producing mutants that are targeted to kinetochores and assembled into MCC, yet display reduced APC/C binding and are unable to maintain checkpoint arrests. We show biochemically that Mad3 phospho-mimics are potent APC/C inhibitors in vitro, demonstrating that Mad3p modification can directly influence Cdc20^Slp1-APC/C activity. This genetic dissection of APC/C inhibition demonstrates that Mps1^Mph1 kinase-dependent modifications of Mad3 and Mad2 act in a concerted manner to maintain spindle checkpoint arrests.     

The mitotic arrest in response to hypoxia and of polar bodies during early embryogenesis requires Drosophila Mps1

Mps1 kinase plays an evolutionary conserved role in the mitotic spindle checkpoint. This system precludes anaphase onset until all chromosomes have successfully attached to spindle microtubules via their kinetochores. Mps1 overexpression in budding yeast is sufficient to trigger a mitotic arrest, which is dependent on the other mitotic checkpoint components, Bub1, Bub3, Mad1, Mad2, and Mad3. Therefore, Mps1 might act at the top of the mitotic checkpoint cascade. Moreover, in contrast to the other mitotic checkpoint components, Mps1 is essential for spindle pole body duplication in budding yeast. Centrosome duplication in mammalian cells might also be controlled by Mps1 , but the fission yeast homolog is not required for spindle pole body duplication. Our phenotypic characterizations of Mps1 mutant embryos in Drosophila do not reveal an involvement in centrosome duplication, while the mitotic spindle checkpoint is defective in these mutants. In addition, our analyses reveal novel functions. We demonstrate that Mps1 is also required for the arrest of cell cycle progression in response to hypoxia. Finally, we show that Mps1 and the mitotic spindle checkpoint are responsible for the developmental cell cycle arrest of the three haploid products of female meiosis that are not used as the female pronucleus.