Nephrin分子细胞内吞转运途径的研究

为研究nephrin分子在细胞内的转运途径,探讨其在维持肾小球裂孔膜完整性上的作用,构建了nephrin真核表达载体,并转染至COS-7细胞内,应用免疫荧光三重标记的方法,分别进行细胞内及细胞表面的荧光标记,联合笼型蛋白介导的内吞(clathrin-mediated endocytosis,CME)和脂筏介导的内吞(raft-mediated endocytosis,RME)标记物,通过共聚焦显微镜对裂隙膜分子nephrin在不同时间点细胞内的内吞转运特点进行研究。结果发现在转运启动2 min时,68.44%±4.65%的nephrin通过CME途径进行细胞内转运;在20 min时,65.24%±4.02%的nephrin以RME途径进行转运,并且两种转运途径均可被相关途径抑制物所阻断。表明nephrin通过两种途径进行细胞内转运,提示不同的转运途径可能与其实现不同功能有关。     

基于化学相似性搜索的丹酚酸A潜在靶点预测研究

丹酚酸A是中药丹参中一种水溶性酚酸类化合物,具有较强的抗氧化性,发挥着多种药理作用。但其作用靶点仍需要进一步阐释。本文以Swiss Target Predicition在线服务器为工具,以SAA为研究对象,采用化学相似性搜索其作用靶点。实验结果显示Fyn、Src等Src酪氨酸家族蛋白是SAA作用的潜在靶点,正向分子对接也显示了SAA与Fyn的核心氨基酸有相互作用。综上,Fyn、Src等Src酪氨酸激酶家族蛋白可能是SAA的潜在靶蛋白之一。     

Nephrin 信号转导机制研究进展

Nephrin作为肾小球足细胞膜上的跨膜蛋白,是足细胞裂隙膜重要的结构分子。近来发现,nephrin分子细胞内段的酪氨酸残基在被酪氨酸激酶fyn（属Src激酶家族成员）磷酸化后,能激活下游信号分子,形成足细胞内特有的信号转导通路,如nephrin—podocin—MAPK—AP-1、nephrin—CD2AP-P13K-Akt／PKB、nephrin-Nck—Rac／CDC42等。这些信号通路参与了足细胞胚胎发生、细胞生存与细胞骨架重组等许多重要生理病理过程的调节。同样,nephrin蛋白及mRNA的表达也受许多因素的调节。研究nephrin及其信号转导机制对了解并防治肾小球硬化有重要意义。     

酪氨酸蛋白激酶Fyn突变体FynY531F与FynK299M活性的鉴定

Fyn是Src酪氨酸蛋白激酶家族（Src family of protein tyrosine kinases;Src PTKs）中的一员,在神经元的增殖、分化和存活中起着重要作用.本文利用分子克隆手段构建Fyn突变体FynY531F（酪氨酸突变为苯丙氨酸）和FynK299M（赖氨酸突变为甲硫氨酸）的真核表达载体,并通过检测突变体对NMDA受体亚基NR2A的磷酸化作用以鉴定其激酶活性.根据GenBank提供的大鼠Fyn的cDNA序列（NM\--012755）,采用RT-PCR扩增野生型 Fyn（wFyn）目的基因,应用定点突变技术扩增活化型Fyn（FynY531F）目的基因,并用重叠延伸PCR定点突变技术扩增失活型Fyn（FynK299M）目的基因,分别克隆入真核表达载体pcDNA3.1(+).免疫印迹分析显示,wFyn、FynY531F及FynK299M重组体均能在COS-7细胞表达.将构建的3个重组体分别与NMDA受体亚基NR2A的表达质粒共转染COS-7细胞.结果显示,活化型Fyn能够使NR2A酪氨酸磷酸化,而失活型Fyn则没有表现出激酶活性.结果表明,本文成功构建了野生型、活化型及失活型Fyn的真核表达载体,为进一步揭示Fyn在中枢神经系统中的病理生理意义奠定了基础.     

神经元突触内的非受体型酪氨酸激酶底物（英文）

非受体型酪氨酸激酶(non-receptor tyrosine kinase,nRTK)是一个较大的激酶家族,其功能是催化蛋白的酪氨酸磷酸化。nRTK家族中的几种常见亚型,比如Src和Fyn,可以在神经系统内表达。近年来的研究表明,神经元的突触部位含有多个nRTK的底物蛋白,这些底物蛋白主要包括谷氨酸受体(离子型和代谢型谷氨酸受体)、突触后构架蛋白、突触前调节蛋白和突触富含的多种蛋白激酶。在基础或刺激的状态下,nRTK可催化这些底物蛋白内特定酪氨酸的磷酸化,从而调节这些底物蛋白的多种生理、生化和生物物理功能。因为突触内的nRTK对突触变化信号非常敏感,所以突触nRTK被认为参与了突触传导活动的强度和效率等方面的调节。     

Src激酶的功能研究新进展

Src激酶家族是具有酪氨酸蛋白激酶活性的蛋白质,作为连接许多细胞外和细胞内重要信号途径的膜结合开关分子,Src激酶在受体介导的信号传递及细胞间通讯中具中心调节作用。最近发现它在淋巴因子介导的细胞存活及血管内皮生长因子介导的血管发生中也具有重要作用。     

脂质筏--病原微生物出入细胞的一种门户

脂质筏是富含胆固醇和鞘磷脂的一种特殊膜结构,脂质筏形成的膜微区具有更低的膜流动性,呈现有序液相。脂质筏参与包括跨膜信号转导、物质内吞、脂质及蛋白定向分选在内的多种重要细胞生物学过程。分布于脂筏的分子主要有两种形式的蛋白修饰：与糖基磷脂酰肌醇(GPI)相连,或被肉豆蔻酸酰化／软脂酸酯酰化。一系列GPI-锚固蛋白被鉴定为多种不同的细菌、细菌毒素和病毒的受体。越来越多的研究发现,不同类型和种属来源的细菌、细菌毒素、原虫及病毒利用细胞质膜表面的脂筏结构介导其入胞,完成跨细胞转运、胞内复制或感染周期,一些病毒还利用脂筏完成其病毒颗粒的组装和出芽过程。通过对病原微生物如何利用脂筏介导其内吞及内吞入胞后在胞内的转运的研究,有利于我们更好地认识病原微生物与宿主细胞之间的相互作用,从而有可能发展更有效的抗感染策略。     

细胞内吞的研究进展

细胞外基质的各种分子经细胞膜进入真核细胞是一个复杂的过程。细胞内吞是通过细胞质膜的变形运动将细胞外物质转运入细胞内的过程。不同的细胞内吞途径需要不同的蛋白质分子参与,引起不同的信号转导通路。目前认为细胞内吞和膜转运是细胞对其信号转导过程的一种精密的组织安排,细胞内吞在细胞信号转导,维持机体动态平衡方面起着重要作用。细胞内吞途径通常可以分为网格蛋白依赖的内吞和非网格蛋白依赖的内吞,其中后者包括陷窝蛋白依赖和非陷窝蛋白依赖的内吞,以及巨胞饮介导的内吞。本文将就这几种主要细胞内吞途径及与细胞信号转导通路关系的研究进展予以介绍。     

蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶SHP-2与疾病的相关性研究进展

蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶家族由130多种蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶组成,它们和蛋白质酪氨酸激酶家族一起调控蛋白质中酪氨酸残基的磷酸化以及去磷酸化的动态平衡,它们的活性直接决定细胞内蛋白质的磷酸化水平的高低。SHP-2是蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶家族的一员,在各种细胞和组织中均有广泛的表达,参与多个信号传导通路,介导细胞的生长、分化、迁移、粘附及凋亡等。SHP-2的表达异常会导致多种疾病的产生,但是相关综述较少,同时未见文献报道其在胶质瘤中的作用,因此本文简要介绍SHP-2的结构、功能、信号传导,并阐述了SHP-2与常见疾病的关系。     

支架蛋白Gab2信号调控与乳腺癌

Gab2是支架蛋白Gabs家族中的重要成员.该家族蛋白通过介导膜受体与信号转运蛋白间的偶联及各信号分子间的整合参与信号传导.作为支架蛋白,Gab2可被酪氨酸激酶磷酸化激活,接受胞外多种因子刺激,招募富含SH2结构域的信号转运分子,活化下游SHP2/Ras/ERK和PI3K/AKT等一系列信号传导途径,在细胞增殖、分化、...     

Common Membrane Trafficking Defects of Disease‐Associated Dynamin 2 Mutations

Dynamin (Dyn) is a multidomain and multifunctional GTPase best known for its essential role in clathrin‐mediated endocytosis (CME). Dyn2 mutations have been linked to two human diseases, centronuclear myopathy (CNM) and Charcot‐Marie‐Tooth (CMT) disease. Paradoxically, although Dyn2 is ubiquitously expressed and essential for embryonic development, the disease‐associated Dyn2 mutants are autosomal dominant, but result in slowly progressing and tissue‐specific diseases. Thus, although the cellular defects that cause disease remain unclear, they are expected to be mild. To gain new insight into potential pathogenic mechanisms, we utilized mouse Dyn2 conditional knockout cells combined with retroviral‐mediated reconstitution to mimic both heterozygous and homozygous states and characterized cellular phenotypes using quantitative assays for several membrane trafficking events. Surprisingly, none of the four mutants studied exhibited a defect in CME, but all were impaired in their ability to support p75/neurotrophin receptor export from the Golgi, the raft‐dependent endocytosis of cholera toxin and the clathrin‐independent endocytosis of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). While it will be important to study these mutants in disease‐relevant muscle and neuronal cells, given the importance of neurotrophic factors and lipid rafts in muscle physiology, we speculate that these common cellular defects might contribute to the tissue‐specific diseases caused by a ubiquitously expressed protein.     

Suppression of dynamin GTPase activity by sertraline leads to inhibition of dynamin-dependent endocytosis

Dynamin (Dyn) 1 plays a role in recycling of synaptic vesicles, and thus in nervous system function. We previously showed that sertraline, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), is a mixed-type inhibitor of Dyn 1 with respect to both GTP and l-α-phosphatidyl-l-serine (PS) in vitro, and we suggested that it may regulate the neurotransmitter transport by modulating synaptic vesicle endocytosis via inhibition of Dyn 1 GTPase. Here, we investigated the effect of sertraline on endocytosis of marker proteins in human neuroblastoma SH-Sy5Y cells and HeLa cells. Sertraline inhibited endocytosis in both cell lines. Western blotting showed that SH-Sy5Y expresses Dyn 1 and Dyn 2, while HeLa expresses only Dyn 2. GTPase assay showed that sertraline inhibited Dyn 2 as well as Dyn 1. Therefore, the effect of sertraline on endocytosis was mediated by Dyn 2, at least in HeLa cells, as well as by Dyn 1 in cell lines that express it. Moreover, the inhibition mechanism of transferrin (Tf) uptake by sertraline differed from that in cells expressing Dyn 1 K44A, a GTP binding-defective variant, and sertraline did not interfere with the interaction between Dyn 1 and PS-liposomes.     

Exosome Adherence and Internalization by Hepatic Stellate Cells Triggers Sphingosine 1-Phosphate-dependent Migration

Exosomes are cell-derived extracellular vesicles thought to promote intercellular communication by delivering specific content to target cells. The aim of this study was to determine whether endothelial cell (EC)-derived exosomes could regulate the phenotype of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). Initial microarray studies showed that fibroblast growth factor 2 induced a 2.4-fold increase in mRNA levels of sphingosine kinase 1 (SK1). Exosomes derived from an SK1-overexpressing EC line increased HSC migration 3.2-fold. Migration was not conferred by the dominant negative SK1 exosome. Incubation of HSCs with exosomes was also associated with an 8.3-fold increase in phosphorylation of AKT and 2.5-fold increase in migration. Exosomes were found to express the matrix protein and integrin ligand fibronectin (FN) by Western blot analysis and transmission electron microscopy. Blockade of the FN-integrin interaction with a CD29 neutralizing antibody or the RGD peptide attenuated exosome-induced HSC AKT phosphorylation and migration. Inhibition of endocytosis with transfection of dynamin siRNA, the dominant negative dynamin GTPase construct Dyn2K44A, or the pharmacological inhibitor Dynasore significantly attenuated exosome-induced AKT phosphorylation. SK1 levels were increased in serum exosomes derived from mice with experimental liver fibrosis, and SK1 mRNA levels were up-regulated 2.5-fold in human liver cirrhosis patient samples. Finally, S1PR2 inhibition protected mice from CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis. Therefore, EC-derived SK1-containing exosomes regulate HSC signaling and migration through FN-integrin-dependent exosome adherence and dynamin-dependent exosome internalization. These findings advance our understanding of EC/HSC cross-talk and identify exosomes as a potential target to attenuate pathobiology signals.     

Isoform and splice-variant specific functions of dynamin-2 revealed by analysis of conditional knock-out cells

Dynamin (Dyn) is a multifunctional GTPase implicated in several cellular events, including endocytosis, intracellular trafficking, cell signaling, and cytokinesis. The mammalian genome encodes three isoforms, Dyn1, Dyn2, and Dyn3, and several splice variants of each, leading to the suggestion that distinct isoforms and/or distinct splice variants might mediate distinct cellular functions. We generated a conditional Dyn2 KO cell line and performed knockout and reconstitution experiments to explore the isoform- and splice variant specific cellular functions of ubiquitously expressed Dyn2. We find that Dyn2 is required for clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME), p75 export from the Golgi, and PDGF-stimulated macropinocytosis and cytokinesis, but not for other endocytic pathways. Surprisingly, CME and p75 exocytosis were efficiently rescued by reintroduction of Dyn2, but not Dyn1, suggesting that these two isoforms function differentially in vesicular trafficking in nonneuronal cells. Both isoforms rescued macropinocytosis and cytokinesis, suggesting that dynamin function in these processes might be mechanistically distinct from its role in CME. Although all four Dyn2 splice variants could equally restore CME, Dyn2ba and -bb were more effective at restoring p75 exocytosis. This splice variant specificity correlated with their differential targeting to the Golgi. These studies reveal isoform and splice-variant specific functions for Dyn2.     

Differential requirements for AP-2 in clathrin-mediated endocytosis

AP-2 complexes are key components in clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). They trigger clathrin assembly, interact directly with cargo molecules, and recruit a number of endocytic accessory factors. Adaptor-associated kinase (AAK1), an AP-2 binding partner, modulates AP-2 function by phosphorylating its mu2 subunit. Here, we examined the effects of adenoviral-mediated overexpression of WT AAK1, kinase-dead, and truncation mutants in HeLa cells, and show that AAK1 also regulates AP-2 function in vivo. WT AAK1 overexpression selectively blocks transferrin (Tfn) receptor and LRP endocytosis. Inhibition was kinase independent, but required the full-length AAK1 as truncation mutants were not inhibitory. Although changes in mu2 phosphorylation were not detected, AAK1 overexpression significantly decreased the phosphorylation of large adaptin subunits and the normally punctate AP-2 distribution was dispersed, suggesting that AAK1 overexpression inhibited Tfn endocytosis by functionally sequestering AP-2. Surprisingly, clathrin distribution and EGF uptake were unaffected by AAK1 overexpression. Thus, AP-2 may not be stoichiometrically required for coat assembly, and may have a more cargo-selective function in CME than previously thought.     

Redundant and Distinct Functions for Dynamin-1 and Dynamin-2 Isoforms

A role for dynamin in clathrin-mediated endocytosis is now well established. However, mammals express three closely related, tissue-specific dynamin isoforms, each with multiple splice variants. Thus, an important question is whether these isoforms and splice variants function in vesicle formation from distinct intracellular organelles. There are conflicting data as to a role for dynamin-2 in vesicle budding from the TGN. To resolve this issue, we compared the effects of overexpression of dominant-negative mutants of dynamin-1 (the neuronal isoform) and dynamin-2 (the ubiquitously expressed isoform) on endocytic and biosynthetic membrane trafficking in HeLa cells and polarized MDCK cells. Both dyn1(K44A) and dyn2(K44A) were potent inhibitors of receptor-mediated endocytosis; however neither mutant directly affected other membrane trafficking events, including transport mediated by four distinct classes of vesicles budding from the TGN. Dyn2(K44A) more potently inhibited receptor-mediated endocytosis than dyn1(K44A) in HeLa cells and at the basolateral surface of MDCK cells. In contrast, dyn1(K44A) more potently inhibited endocytosis at the apical surface of MDCK cells. The two dynamin isoforms have redundant functions in endocytic vesicle formation, but can be targeted to and function differentially at subdomains of the plasma membrane.     

Unconventional endocytic mechanisms

Endocytosis mediates the uptake of extracellular proteins, micronutrients and transmembrane cell surface proteins. Importantly, many viruses, toxins and bacteria hijack endocytosis to infect cells. The canonical pathway is clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) and is active in all eukaryotic cells to support critical house-keeping functions. Unconventional mechanisms of endocytosis exit in parallel of CME, to internalize specific cargoes and support various cellular functions. These clathrin-independent endocytic (CIE) routes use three distinct mechanisms: acute signaling-induced membrane remodeling drives macropinocytosis, activity-dependent bulk endocytosis (ADBE), massive endocytosis (MEND) and EGFR non-clathrin endocytosis (EGFR-NCE). Cargo capture and local membrane deformation by cytosolic proteins is used by fast endophilin-mediated endocytosis (FEME), IL-2Rβ endocytosis and ultrafast endocytosis at synapses. Finally, the formation of endocytic pits by clustering of extracellular lipids or cargoes according to the Glycolipid-Lectin (GL-Lect) hypothesis mediates the uptake of SV40 virus, Shiga and cholera toxins, and galectin-clustered receptors by the CLIC/GEEC and the endophilin-A3-mediated CIE.     

Trafficking of the human transferrin receptor in plant cells: effects of tyrphostin A23 and brefeldin A

Plant cells possess much of the molecular machinery necessary for receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME), but this process still awaits detailed characterization. In order to identify a reliable and well-characterized marker to investigate RME in plant cells, we have expressed the human transferrin receptor (hTfR) in Arabidopsis protoplasts. We have found that hTfR is mainly found in endosomal (Ara7- and FM4-64-positive) compartments, but also at the plasma membrane, where it mediates binding and internalization of its natural ligand transferrin (Tfn). Cell surface expression of hTfR increases upon treatment with tyrphostin A23, which inhibits the interaction between the YTRF endocytosis signal in the hTfR cytosolic tail and the mu2-subunit of the AP2 complex. Indeed, tyrphostin A23 inhibits Tfn internalization and redistributes most of hTfR to the plasma membrane, suggesting that the endocytosis signal of hTfR is functional in Arabidopsis protoplasts. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments show that hTfR is able to interact with a mu-adaptin subunit from Arabidopsis cytosol, a process that is blocked by tyrphostin A23. In contrast, treatment with brefeldin A, which inhibits recycling from endosomes back to the plasma membrane in plant cells, leads to the accumulation of Tfn and hTfR in larger patches inside the cell, reminiscent of BFA compartments. Therefore, hTfR has the same trafficking properties in Arabidopsis protoplasts as in animal cells, and cycles between the plasma membrane and endosomal compartments. The specific inhibition of Tfn/hTfR internalization and recycling by tyrphostin A23 and BFA, respectively, thus provide valuable molecular tools to characterize RME and the recycling pathway in plant cells.     

Homologous regulation of the heptahelical D1A receptor responsiveness: specific cytoplasmic tail regions mediate dopamine-induced phosphorylation,desensitization and endocytosis

In the present study, we investigate the role of specific cytoplasmic tail (CT) regions of the D1A receptor in mediating dopamine (DA)-induced phosphorylation, desensitization and endocytosis. Results obtained in human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells expressing the wild-type (WT) or truncation forms (Delta425, Delta379 and Delta351) of the D1A receptor show that sequences located downstream of Gly379 regulate DA-mediated phosphorylation-dependent desensitization of D1A receptors. However, the longer truncation mutant Delta351 failed to undergo detectable DA-induced phosphorylation while exhibiting DA-induced desensitization features similar to the shorter truncation mutant Delta379. These data potentially suggest a novel role for a receptor phosphorylation-independent process in the DA-promoted D1A subtype desensitization. Our immunofluorescence data also suggest that sequences located between Cys351 and Gly379 play an important role in DA-mediated receptor endocytosis. Additionally, time-course studies were done in intact cells expressing WT or truncation receptors to measure the observed rate constant for adenylyl cyclase (AC) activation or k(obs), a parameter linked to the receptor-G protein coupling status. In agreement with the desensitization data, Delta425- and Delta379-expressing cells exhibit an increase of kobs in comparison with WT-expressing cells. Nevertheless, Delta351-expressing cells, which harbor similar desensitization features of Delta379-expressing cells, display no change in k(obs) when compared with WT-expressing cells. Our results suggest that a defective DA-induced endocytosis may hamper Delta351 resensitization and concomitant increase in k(obs). Thus, our study showing that specific D1A receptor CT sequences regulate DA-induced phosphorylation, desensitization, and endocytosis highlights the underlying molecular complexity of signaling at dopaminergic synapses.     

α-Synuclein facilitates endocytosis by elevating the steady-state levels of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate

α-Synuclein (α-Syn) is a protein implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson''s disease (PD). It is an intrinsically disordered protein that binds acidic phospholipids. Growing evidence supports a role for α-Syn in membrane trafficking, including, mechanisms of endocytosis and exocytosis, although the exact role of α-Syn in these mechanisms is currently unclear. Here we investigate the associations of α-Syn with the acidic phosphoinositides (PIPs), phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P₂) and phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate (PI(3,4)P₂). Our results show that α-Syn colocalizes with PIP₂ and the phosphorylated active form of the clathrin adaptor protein 2 (AP2) at clathrin-coated pits. Using endocytosis of transferrin as an indicator for clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME), we find that α-Syn involvement in endocytosis is specifically mediated through PI(4,5)P₂ levels on the plasma membrane. In accord with their effects on PI(4,5)P₂ levels, the PD associated A30P, E46K, and A53T mutations in α-Syn further enhance CME in neuronal and nonneuronal cells. However, lysine to glutamic acid substitutions at the KTKEGV repeat domain of α-Syn, which interfere with phospholipid binding, are ineffective in enhancing CME. We further show that the rate of synaptic vesicle (SV) endocytosis is differentially affected by the α-Syn mutations and associates with their effects on PI(4,5)P₂ levels, however, with the exception of the A30P mutation. This study provides evidence for a critical involvement of PIPs in α-Syn–mediated membrane trafficking.