革兰氏阴性细菌外膜主要成分的跨膜转运机制研究进展

革兰氏阴性细菌的外膜由脂多糖、磷脂、外膜蛋白和脂蛋白等成分组成,是细菌抵御外界有害物质的首要物理屏障,与细菌致病性和耐药性密切相关.外膜各组分依赖特定的系统进行跨膜转运,包括脂多糖转运系统(lipopolysaccharide transport, Lpt)、脂质不对称维持系统(maintenance of lipid asymmetry, Mla)、β-桶状装配机器(β-barrel assembly machinery,Bam)以及脂蛋白定位系统(localization of lipoprotein,Lol).这些系统能够保证细菌外膜的完整与稳定,被视为维持细菌生命活动的"命门".因此,本文系统地综述革兰氏阴性细菌外膜主要成分的跨膜转运系统结构与功能,并对其未来研究方向进行展望,为新型靶向抗菌类药物研发提供新的思路.     

头孢地尔:新型铁载体头孢菌素抗多重耐药革兰阴性杆菌感染北大核心CSCD

抗菌药物耐药是目前全世界面临的重要公共卫生问题之一,亟需开发有效的广谱抗菌药物以应对多重耐药革兰阴性杆菌的感染。头孢地尔是日本Shionogi公司开发的新型铁载体头孢菌素类抗菌药物。该药物对碳青霉烯耐药的肠杆菌目细菌(carbapenem resistant Enterobacterales,CRE)、铜绿假单胞菌、鲍曼不动杆菌和嗜麦芽窄食单胞菌等具有广谱强效的抗菌活性。该药物克服了革兰阴性杆菌因外膜孔道蛋白表达量下调和主动外排泵表达量上调产生的耐药性,并对丝氨酸酶和金属碳青霉烯酶具有较好的稳定性。该药可用于治疗由革兰阴性杆菌引起的复杂性尿路感染(包括肾盂肾炎)、院内获得性肺炎和呼吸机相关性肺炎。文中通过汇总头孢地尔的化学结构、抗菌作用机制、体外抗菌活性、药代动力学、药效学和临床治疗等信息,展现头孢地尔作为新型铁载体头孢菌素在治疗多重耐药革兰阴性杆菌感染中的应用前景。     

头孢曲松耐药菌通过调整能量代谢相关蛋白产生耐药性

随着抗生素药物的开发与利用,细菌在对抗药物过程中逐渐发展出各种不同的耐药机制.近年来高通量的蛋白质组学技术已逐渐用于细菌耐药性机理研究,但主要集中在对细菌外膜蛋白的作用进行分析.本文采用2-D native/SDS PAGE方法从蛋白质复合物角度分析接近生理条件的胞浆蛋白在头孢曲松耐药性中的作用.结果发现8个耐药性相关蛋白质,通过对蛋白质功能分析,揭示了细菌通过调整能量代谢相关蛋白产生耐药性的新机制.进一步对相关菌株的次抑菌浓度和生存率分析,提示MalP和SucC等关键蛋白质可作为设计和开发新型抗菌分子的作用靶点.     

革兰氏阴性菌血红素载体蛋白Hemophore的结构及作用机制

血红素作为宿主体内最丰富的铁离子来源,是致病菌营养竞争的主要目标,尤其对于血红素自身合成途径部分丧失的细菌。革兰氏阴性菌血红素转运系统由血红素载体蛋白(Hemophore)、外膜血红素受体、TonB-ExbB-ExbD复合物、ABC转运体等组成。Hemophore是存在于细菌细胞膜上或分泌到胞外环境中的一种蛋白。它能从宿主血红素结合蛋白中捕获血红素并将其传递给外膜受体。目前,在不同革兰氏阴性菌中已发现3种类型的Hemophore,分别是HasA、HxuA和HmuY型。本文将详细描述这3种Hemophore捕获血红素及与外膜受体相互作用的机制,以期为进一步研究其他细菌血红素载体蛋白的功能及作用机制奠定基础。     

革兰氏阴性菌亚铁离子转运系统的组成及作用机制

几乎所有细菌的生长都离不开铁元素。在有氧的环境中,三价铁离子几乎无法被细菌直接利用。但是在宿主胃肠道中,铁元素主要以可溶性的亚铁离子形式存在,它们可通过革兰氏阴性菌外膜直接进入胞周质,在周质通过亚铁离子转运系统,将铁离子转运至胞浆供细菌利用。绝大多数阴性菌主要是通过Feo转运系统利用亚铁离子,大肠杆菌的Feo转运系统由feoA、feoB和feoC3个基因组成。除Feo转运系统外,还发现Yfe转运系统、Efe转运系统、Sit转运系统等。本文重点介绍革兰氏阴性菌Feo转运系统的组成及作用机制,以期为进一步研究细菌亚铁离子的转运机制提供参考。     

细菌抗菌肽耐药机制研究进展

细菌对传统抗生素的耐药程度十分严重,寻找克服耐药性的新型抗菌药物已成为当务之急。抗菌肽(antimicrobial peptides,AMPs)是当下较有前景的抗菌药物之一。虽然通常认为,AMPs优先攻击细胞膜的特点使其不会引起广泛的耐药性,但其对特定靶标的识别能力仍为基因突变和细菌耐药性的产生提供了可能。此外,一些细菌还显示出了抵御宿主AMPs的杀伤作用并与宿主细胞共存的能力,相应的细菌防御机制也使其对治疗性AMPs产生抗性,这种交叉抗性近年来也备受关注。这些耐药现象的发现均对AMPs的开发提出了新挑战。本综述就细菌对AMPs耐药的分子机制进行了研究进展的总结,并且对治疗性AMPs与宿主防御肽交叉抗性的相关机制研究进行了归纳,以期寻求新的对抗耐药性的策略。     

抗菌肽的研究进展

近年来,由于细菌耐药性问题日趋严峻,开发新型抗菌制剂已迫在眉睫。抗菌肽具有相对分,子质量小、对热稳定、抗菌谱广及不同于抗生素的抗菌机制,不产生耐药性,因而具有重要的临床应用价值。本文对天然来源、蛋白质酶解、化学合成及基因工程方法产生的抗菌肽及其研究进展进行了综述。     

人β-型肽抗生素研究进展

肽抗生素是生物体免疫防御系统的一个重要组成部分,有的为组成型表达,有的则只因微生物等因素的侵染而产生,肽抗生素带正电荷,对热稳定,具有广谱的抗菌活性,在迫切需要解决细菌对传统抗生素产生耐药性问题的今天,肽抗生素的研究为人类寻找新型的抗菌药物开辟了一条全新的道路。     

微生态学与后抗生素时代

本文简述了抗生素产生的历史背景,和对人类感染性疾病作出的贡献。但由于抗生素的泛用、滥用和过度治疗,引起了机体的菌群失调、二重感染和更为严重的细菌耐药性。为解决抗生素的弊端,解决菌群失调等问题,促使了微生态学的兴起和发展。本文还阐述了细菌耐药性的现状及危害,细菌产生耐药性的动因,后抗生素时代对细菌的防控措施。提出用微生态制剂、肠道正常菌群、中药、抗菌肽、噬菌体、研制新型抗菌药和规范用药等措施,防控细菌感染。同时阐述了常用中药的抗菌谱,及与微生态制剂合并应用的可能性。     

噬菌体裂解酶应用研究进展

近年来,随着抗生素的滥用,导致多重耐药性菌株出现的频率加快。因细菌感染导致死亡的人数逐年增多,人类健康面临巨大挑战,因此研制新型抗菌药物刻不容缓。噬菌体裂解酶因其高效的杀菌能力及高度的宿主专一性而成为新一代抗菌制剂的候选之一。其是一种细胞壁水解酶,在双链DNA噬菌体复制后期被合成,通过水解细胞壁肽聚糖上的化学键,从而裂解细菌细胞壁,释放出子代噬菌体。本文系统地介绍了噬菌体裂解酶的研究进展,为相关裂解酶抗菌药物的研发做出有益探索。     

Crystal structure of the antibiotic albomycin in complex with the outer membrane transporter FhuA

One alternative method for drug delivery involves the use of siderophore-antibiotic conjugates. These compounds represent a specific means by which potent antimicrobial agents, covalently linked to iron-chelating siderophores, can be actively transported across the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. These "Trojan Horse" antibiotics may prove useful as an efficient means to combat multi-drug-resistant bacterial infections. Here we present the crystallographic structures of the natural siderophore-antibiotic conjugate albomycin and the siderophore phenylferricrocin, in complex with the active outer membrane transporter FhuA from Escherichia coli. To our knowledge, this represents the first structure of an antibiotic bound to its cognate transporter. Albomycins are broad-host range antibiotics that consist of a hydroxamate-type iron-chelating siderophore, and an antibiotically active, thioribosyl pyrimidine moiety. As observed with other hydroxamate-type siderophores, the three-dimensional structure of albomycin reveals an identical coordination geometry surrounding the ferric iron atom. Unexpectedly, this antibiotic assumes two conformational isomers in the binding site of FhuA, an extended and a compact form. The structural information derived from this study provides novel insights into the diverse array of antibiotic moieties that can be linked to the distal portion of iron-chelating siderophores and offers a structural platform for the rational design of hydroxamate-type siderophore-antibiotic conjugates.     

A colorimetric assay for rapid screening of antimicrobial peptides

The increased resistance of various bacteria toward available antibiotic drugs has initiated intensive research efforts into identifying new sources of antimicrobial substances. Short antibiotic peptides (10-30 residues) are prevalent in nature as part of the intrinsic defense mechanisms of most organisms and have been proposed as a blueprint for the design of novel antimicrobial agents. Antimicrobial peptides are generally believed to kill bacteria through membrane permeabilization and extensive pore-formation. Assays providing rapid and easy evaluation of interactions between antimicrobial membrane peptides and lipid bilayers could significantly improve screening for substances with effective antibacterial properties, as well as contribute to the elucidation of structural and functional properties of antimicrobial peptides. Here we describe a colorimetric sensor in which particles composed of phospholipids and polymerized polydiacetylene (PDA) lipids were shown to exhibit striking color changes upon interactions with antimicrobial membrane peptides. The color changes in the system occur because of the structural perturbation of the lipids following their interactions with antimicrobial peptides. The assay was also sensitive to the antibacterial properties of structurally and functionally related peptide analogs.     

微生物嗜铁素介导的铁摄取

嗜铁素是好氧菌和兼性厌氧菌的一种产物,它是微生物在低铁条件下产生的小分子的、特异性的Fe^3＋螯合因子。大多数的好氧和兼性厌氧微生物至少合成一种嗜铁素,由嗜铁素介导的铁摄取可能是细菌最普遍的一种获取铁元素的方式。     

真菌防御素plectasin研究进展

抗生素耐受现象日益严重,迫切需要研发新型抗菌药物。Plectasin是第一例报道的真菌防御素,其抗菌谱窄,仅对革兰氏阳性菌具有强大的杀菌活性,对其进行结构改造可进一步提高其抗菌作用特异性。Plectasin抗菌机制明晰,作用于细胞壁合成。其药物代谢动力学研究较为透彻,同时可在体外高产量表达且活性更高。这些研究为其应用提供了理论基础。综上,plectasin具有极大的临床应用潜力。     

TonB-dependent receptors—structural perspectives

Plants, bacteria, fungi, and yeast utilize organic iron chelators (siderophores) to establish commensal and pathogenic relationships with hosts and to survive as free-living organisms. In Gram-negative bacteria, transport of siderophores into the periplasm is mediated by TonB-dependent receptors. A complex of three membrane-spanning proteins TonB, ExbB and ExbD couples the chemiosmotic potential of the cytoplasmic membrane with siderophore uptake across the outer membrane. The crystallographic structures of two TonB-dependent receptors (FhuA and FepA) have recently been determined. These outer membrane transporters show a novel fold consisting of two domains. A 22-stranded antiparallel β-barrel traverses the outer membrane and adjacent β-strands are connected by extracellular loops and periplasmic turns. Located inside the β-barrel is the plug domain, composed primarily of a mixed four-stranded β-sheet and a series of interspersed α-helices. Siderophore binding induces distinct local and allosteric transitions that establish the structural basis of signal transduction across the outer membrane and suggest a transport mechanism.     

Neomycin-phenolic conjugates: polycationic amphiphiles with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, low hemolytic activity and weak serum protein binding

Here we present a proof-of-concept study, combining two known antimicrobial agents into a hybrid structure in order to develop an emergent cationic detergent-like interaction with the bacterial membrane. Six amphiphilic conjugates were prepared by copper (I)-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition between a neomycin B-derived azide and three alkyne-modified phenolic disinfectants. Three conjugates displayed good activity against a variety of clinically relevant Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria, including MRSA, without the high level of hemolysis or strong binding to serum proteins commonly observed with other cationic antimicrobial peptides and detergents.     

Catecholates and mixed catecholate hydroxamates as artificial siderophores for mycobacteria

Different mono-, bis- or triscatecholates and mixed mono- or biscatecholate hydroxamates were synthesized as potential siderophores for mycobacteria. Siderophore activity was tested by growth promotion assays using wild type strains and iron transport mutants of mycobacteria as well as Gram-negative bacteria. Some triscatecholates and biscatecholate hydroxamates were active in mutants of Mycobacterium smegmatis deficient in mycobactin and exochelin biosynthesis or exochelin permease, respectively, indicating an uptake route independent of the exochelin/mycobactin pathway. Structure activity relationships were studied. Ampicillin conjugates of some of these compounds were inactive against mycobacteria but active against Gram-negative bacteria.     

TonB-dependent receptors-structural perspectives

Plants, bacteria, fungi, and yeast utilize organic iron chelators (siderophores) to establish commensal and pathogenic relationships with hosts and to survive as free-living organisms. In Gram-negative bacteria, transport of siderophores into the periplasm is mediated by TonB-dependent receptors. A complex of three membrane-spanning proteins TonB, ExbB and ExbD couples the chemiosmotic potential of the cytoplasmic membrane with siderophore uptake across the outer membrane. The crystallographic structures of two TonB-dependent receptors (FhuA and FepA) have recently been determined. These outer membrane transporters show a novel fold consisting of two domains. A 22-stranded antiparallel beta-barrel traverses the outer membrane and adjacent beta-strands are connected by extracellular loops and periplasmic turns. Located inside the beta-barrel is the plug domain, composed primarily of a mixed four-stranded beta-sheet and a series of interspersed alpha-helices. Siderophore binding induces distinct local and allosteric transitions that establish the structural basis of signal transduction across the outer membrane and suggest a transport mechanism.     

Ribosomal binding and antibacterial activity of ethylene glycol‐bridged apidaecin Api137 and oncocin Onc112 conjugates

Recent surveillance data on antimicrobial resistance predict the beginning of the post‐antibiotic era with pan‐resistant bacteria even overcoming polymyxin as the last available treatment option. Thus, new substances using novel modes of antimicrobial action are urgently needed to reduce this health threat. Antimicrobial peptides are part of the innate immune system of most vertebrates and invertebrates and accepted as valid substances for antibiotic drug development efforts. Especially, short proline‐rich antimicrobial peptides (PrAMP) of insect origin have been optimized for activity against Gram‐negative strains. They inhibit protein expression in bacteria by blocking the 70S ribosome exit tunnel (oncocin‐type) or the assembly of the 50S subunit (apidaecin‐type binding). Thus, apidaecin analog Api137 and oncocin analog Onc112 supposedly bind to different nearby or possibly partially overlapping binding sites. Here, we synthesized Api137/Onc112‐conjugates bridged by ethylene glycol spacers of different length to probe synergistic activities and binding modes. Indeed, the antimicrobial activities against Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa improved for some constructs, although the conjugates did not bind better to the 70S ribosome of E. coli than Api137 and Onc112 using 5(6)‐carboxyfluorescein‐labelled Api137 and Onc112 in a competitive fluorescence polarization assay. In conclusion, Api137/Onc112‐conjugates showed increased antimicrobial activities against P. aeruginosa and PrAMP‐susceptible and ‐resistant E. coli most likely because of improved membrane interactions, whereas the interaction to the 70S ribosome was most likely not improved relying still on the independent apidaecin‐ and oncocin‐type binding modes. Copyright © 2016 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.