Detection of α- and ε-toxigenic Clostridium perfringens Type D in sheep and goats using a DNA amplification technique (PCR)

Clostridium perfringens isolated from sheep and goat with enterotoxaemia at necropsy and from healthy animals at slaughter were typed using specific PCR assays for the detection of the α-, β- and ε-toxin genes. Clostridium perfringens isolated from all 52 animals with pathological signs of enterotoxaemia showed the presence of the α- and ε-toxin genes but were devoid of the β-toxin gene. These strains could therefore be identified as type D, characteristic for clostridial enterotoxaemia of sheep, lambs and goats. In contrast, Cl. perfringens isolated from 11 of 13 healthy animals only contained the α-toxin gene which is typical for type A. Two of the healthy animals contained Cl. perfringens with the α- and ε-toxin genes. However, when several individual Cl. perfringens colonies were analysed from each of these two animals, only a small percentage was found to contain the ε-toxin gene, whereas the majority of the colonies were of type A with the α-toxin gene only. This is in contrast to the findings from the diseased animals which contained practically only type D Cl. perfringens . The β-toxin gene was not found in any Cl. perfringens isolate from goat and sheep. Comparison of the PCR data with results obtained by the classical biological toxin assay using the mouse model showed a good correlation.     

The carboxy-terminal C2-like domain of the α-toxin from Clostridium perfringens mediates calcium-dependent membrane recognition

The lethal, cytolytic α-toxin (phospholipase C) of Clostridium perfringens consists of two distinct modules: the larger N-terminal domain catalyses phospholipid hydrolysis, and its activity is potentiated by a smaller C-terminal domain. Calcium ions are essential for the binding of α-toxin to lipid films. Sixteen α-toxin variants with single amino acid substitutions in the C-terminal region were obtained using site-directed mutagenesis and T7 expression technology. Five of these variants showed reduced phospholipase C activity and were considerably less active than native α-toxin under calcium-limiting conditions. Replacement of Thr-272 by Pro diminished phospholipase C activity, severely affected haemolysis and platelet aggregation and perturbed a surface-exposed conformational epitope. The results of sequence comparisons and molecular modelling indicate that the C-terminal region probably belongs to the growing family of C₂β-barrel domains, which are often involved in membrane interactions, and that the functionally important substitutions are clustered at one extremity of the domain. The combined findings suggest that the C-terminal region of α-toxin mediates interactions with membrane phospholipids in a calcium-dependent manner. Mutations to this domain may account for the natural lack of toxicity of the α-toxin homologue, phospholipase C of Clostridium bifermentans .     

C型产气荚膜梭菌β2毒素基因的克隆与表达

利用PCR技术,从C型产气荚膜梭菌染色体基因组中扩增了0．72kb的β2毒素基因,将纯化的PER产物与载体pGEM—T连接,转化至受体菌JM109中,经NcoI／Bam HI和Bam HI／Eco RI酶切鉴定及核苷酸序列测定证实,重组质粒pXCPB2中含有陡毒素基因。随后用Nco I／Bam HI酶切质粒pXCPB2,回收β2毒素基因片段,插入到事先经同样酶切处理的载体pET-28c中相应酶切位点,构建了表达质粒pETXB2,经Nco I／Bam HI和Nco I／Hind Ⅲ／Bam HI酶切鉴定及核苷酸序列测定证实,表达质粒含有陡毒素基因且基因序列和阅读框架正确。重组菌株BL21（DE3）（pETXB2）表达产物经ELISA检测和SDS—PAGE分析,重组菌株表达的β2毒素蛋白能够被如毒素抗体识别,其表达量占菌体总蛋白相对含量的13．26％。     

Detection of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens in food and fecal samples with a duplex PCR and the slide latex agglutination test.

A duplex PCR procedure was evaluated for the detection of Clostridium perfringens in food and biological samples and for the identification of enterotoxigenic strains. This method uses two sets of primers which amplify in the same reaction two different DNA fragments simultaneously: the 283-bp C. perfringens phospholipase C gene fragment and the 426-bp enterotoxin gene fragment. Internal primers within the two primer sets confirmed the specificity of the method by DNA-DNA hybridization with the PCR products. No cross-reaction was observed with other Clostridium species or with other bacteria routinely found in food. The detection level was approximately 10(5) C. perfringens cells per g of stool or food sample. When overnight enrichment culture was used, 10 C. perfringens cells per g was detected in 57 artificially contaminated food samples. The duplex PCR is a rapid, sensitive, and reliable method for the detection and identification of enterotoxigenic C. perfringens strains in food samples. A slide latex agglutination test was also evaluated as a rapid, simple technique for the detection of C. perfringens enterotoxin in stool samples.     

PCR detection of Clostridium perfringens producing different toxins in faeces of goats

A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to identify the genes encoding the major toxins of Clostridium perfringens in faeces of goats. When pure cultures of Cl. perfringens types A, B, C, D and E were used as templates in the PCR, amplicons were observed on the agarose gel as bands at approximately the 247 (alpha primers), 1025 (beta primers), 403 (epsilon primers) and 298 (iota primers) bp level of the DNA marker. When used to identify different types of Cl. perfringens in samples artificially spiked with these micro-organisms, the PCR detected as few as 1–1·5×10² cfu g⁻¹ of the five types of Cl. perfringens tested. The PCR technique allowed the identification and typing of Cl. perfringens strains in faeces of goats, without recourse to other techniques such as the mouse neutralization test.     

PCR detection of Clostridium perfringens type D in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues of goats and sheep

A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to identify the genes encoding the alpha, epsilon and beta toxins of Clostridium perfringens in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded intestinal tissues of goats and sheep. When pure cultures of Cl. perfringens types B and D were used as control templates in the PCR, products of the following sizes were observed on the agarose gel: 247 bp (alpha primers), 1025 bp (beta primers) and 403 bp (epsilon primers). When used to identify Cl. perfringens type D in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded intestinal tissues of goats and sheep, the PCR technique resulted in the detection of this micro-organism in 11 out of 13 samples known to be infected with Cl. perfringens. No false positive results were obtained when 13 culturally negative samples were analysed by the PCR technique.     

Detection by in vitro amplification of the alpha-toxin (phospholipase C) gene from Clostridium perfringens

A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with thermostable DNA polymerase from Thermus aquaticus is described for the specific amplification of the phospholipase C (alpha-toxin) gene of Clostridium perfringens. A set of primers selected for their high specificity could detect Cl. perfringens in stools with a detection limit of approximately 5 x 10² bacteria, after bi-amplification. A modified PCR without thermal steps was performed to rapidly amplify, with a yield of 60%, the DNA template. With this PCR method Cl. perfringens alpha-toxin gene could be detected within 2 h. The PCR method detected alpha-toxin positive Cl. perfringens but did not react with phospholipase C-producing Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Cl. sordellii and Cl. bifermentans.
The amplified PCR products were screened through ethidium bromide agarose gel electrophoresis or, in only 1 h, with the PhastSystem (Pharmacia). This PCR satisfies the criteria of specificity, sensitivity and rapidity required for a useful tool in epidemiology and for the diagnosis of the pathogen Cl. perfringens as it may be used directly on stool samples.     

Typing of sheep clinical isolates and identification of enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens strains by classical methods and by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

A simple procedure was developed to identify toxitypes of Clostridium perfringens of different origins. Ninety strains of C. perfringens were identified by classical bacteriological methods, typing of the strains was done by a seroneutralisation test on mice. Production of enterotoxin was tested and all strains were analysed by PCR using gene of toxin alpha, gene of toxin E, gene of toxin beta and gene of enterotoxin. Simple amplification (amplifying one gene), and duplex and triplex amplification (amplifying two and three genes simultaneously) were performed. In the conditions of the experiment, the PCR method has proved efficacious. The specificity and sensitivity are excellent and superior to those of the classical methods. The prophylaxis of enterotoxaemia in animals is achieved by vaccination, the PCR technique can thus become a first-choice tool for the identification and typing of the C. perfringens strains which initiate these diseases. In turn, this would simplify the development of vaccines adapted to the epidemiological situation.     

产气荚膜梭菌实时荧光PCR方法的建立

目的:利用荧光定量PCR技术,建立快速敏感特异的检测产气荚膜梭菌的方法。方法:以产气荚膜梭菌基因为靶序列设计引物和探针,以自产气荚膜梭菌菌株中提取的DNA为模板,优化引物和探针的浓度比,同时验证方法的特异性、敏感性。结果:建立的反应体系在上游引物浓度为0.45μmol/L、下游引物浓度为0.15μmol/L、探针浓度为0.3μmol/L时,具有良好的特异性和敏感性,与创伤弧菌等12种相关细菌均无交叉反应;对纯菌检测的灵敏度低于10 CFU/反应体系。结论:建立的实时荧光PCR方法特异、灵敏、快速,能对战时气性坏疽做出快速准确的报告,实现对这种战时高发疾病的安全、快速和定量检测。     

Identification of a novel locus that regulates expression of toxin genes in Clostridium perfringens

A novel gene that regulates the alpha-toxin (plc), kappa-toxin (colA), and theta;-toxin (pfoA) genes was identified using toxin-negative mutant strains of Clostridium perfringens. The cloned 3.2-kb fragment contained the virX gene encoding a 51-amino acid polypeptide of unknown function that seemed to be responsible for the activation of toxin genes. The virX knock out mutant of wild-type strain 13 showed a reduced expression of the plc, colA, and pfoA genes, which was complemented by the transformation of the intact virX gene. Deletion and site-directed mutagenesis studies suggested that the virX gene acts as a regulatory RNA rather than as a peptide regulator. The virX locus found in this study might play a part in the signal transduction to regulate toxin production in C. perfringens.     

C型产气荚膜梭菌β1毒素基因表达

利用PCR技术,从C型产气荚膜梭菌染色体DNA中扩增出β1毒素基因,然后用限制性核酸内切酶BamHI和EcoRI对其进行双酶切处理,回收0．95kb的β1毒素基因片段,最后将其定向克隆在事先经同样内切酶处理的载体pET-28c中相应位点上,转化至受体菌B121(DE3)qh。经BamHI和Eco RI双酶切鉴定和核苷酸序列测定证实,构建的重组质粒pETXBl含有B毒素基因,并且具有正确的基因序列和阅读框架。重组菌株BI21(DE3)(pETXB1)经IPIG诱导后,其表达产物经ELISA检测和SDS-PAGE分析,结果表明重组菌株可以高效表达β1毒素蛋白,该蛋白占菌体总蛋白相对含量的12．24％。     

APPLICATION OF A COLONY PCR TECHNIQUE WITH FUNG'S DOUBLE TUBE METHOD FOR RAPID DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION OF CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS

A colony polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique was applied with an established Fung's double tube (FDT) method for rapid detection and confirmation of Clostridium perfringens. Published sequences of PCR primers for C. perfringens alpha toxin gene were used and PCR conditions were optimized. From the detection of C. perfringens by FDT tube to the confirmation by a colony PCR assay took as short as 16–18 h. The method was applied to 147 isolates of anaerobic sulfite reducing bacteria isolated from foods, sewages and animal clinical specimens. The results were compared with standard methods for the confirmation of C. perfringens. Of those 147 suspected isolates, 97 and 99 were confirmed as C. perfringens by standard methods and the colony PCR technique, respectively. We found the developed method simple, rapid, cost-effective, and most importantly, very reliable for the detection and confirmation of C. perfringens.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

With Fung's double tube method and a colony polymerase chain reaction technique, a completed determination of Clostridium perfringens contamination can be accomplished within 16–18 h. This saves at least 2–3 days when compared with standard methods. Moreover, it minimizes the cost and labor needed since an anaerobic chamber as well as steps of Gram staining and biochemical testing can be avoided. The developed method is a powerful tool and an alternative for the enumeration of C. perfringens . It can be applied to samples from various sources and highly reliable results are expected. Most microbiological laboratories have a thermocycler and reagents as parts of their basic instruments. Therefore, the developed method can be easily applied without massive investment.     

Antibiotic-induced expression of a cryptic cpb2 gene in equine beta2-toxigenic Clostridium perfringens

The cpb2 gene of beta2-toxigenic Clostridium perfringens isolated from horses, cattle, sheep, human and pigs was sequenced. The cpb2 gene of equine and other non-porcine isolates differed from porcine isolates by the absence of an adenine in a poly A tract immediately downstream of the start codon in all non-porcine C. perfringens strains. This deletion involved formation of a cryptic gene harbouring a premature stop codon after only nine amino acid codons, while the full beta2-toxin protein consists of 265 amino acids. Immunoblots carried out with antibodies directed against a recombinant beta2-toxin showed the absence of expression of the beta2-toxin in equine and the other non-porcine strains under standard culture conditions. However, treatment of C. perfringens with the aminoglycosides gentamicin or streptomycin was able to induce expression of the cpb2 gene in a representative equine strain of this group, presumably by frameshifting. The presence of the beta2-toxin was revealed by immunohistology in tissue samples of small and large intestine from horses with severe typhlocolitis that had been treated before with gentamicin. This result may explain the finding that antibiotic treatment of horses affected by beta2-toxigenic C. perfringens leads to a more accentuated and fatal progression of equine typhlocolitis. Clinical observations show a reduced appearance of strong typhlocolitis in horses with intestinal complications admitted to hospital care since the standard use of gentamicin has been abandoned. This is the first report on expression of a bacterial toxin gene by antibiotic-induced ribosomal frameshifting.     

Detection and identification of Listeria monocytogenes in cooked sausage products and in milk by in vitro amplification of haemolysin gene fragments

Recent outbreaks of listeriosis have emphasized the urgent need for rapid and reliable detection methods for Listeria spp., especially in food. Haemolysin production is a major factor in the pathogenesis of listeriosis and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to amplify two specific DNA fragments of the α- and the β-haemolysin genes. The amplification system specifically recognized L. monocytogenes strains. The detection limit determined with pure cultures was 10 bacteria when estimated with α-haemolysin primers. In the analysis of 50 samples of cooked sausage products, bacterial colonies suspected to be Listeria spp. were isolated by conventional methods from six samples. PCR analysis identified three of six as L. monocytogenes. Subsequent serotyping showed perfect agreement with the PCR results. Since enrichment is the most time consuming step in conventional methods a PCR procedure which allows the direct detection of L. monocytogenes in milk was developed. Pasteurized milk was artificially contaminated with various levels of L. monocytogenes. The detection limit was determined to be 10 bacteria/10 ml milk and direct detection and identification of L. monocytogenes took less than two working days. These results show that this haemolysin gene amplification system is very rapid and reliable and therefore avoids cumbersome and lengthy cultivation steps.     

Genome sequencing and analysis of a type A Clostridium perfringens isolate from a case of bovine clostridial abomasitis

Clostridium perfringens is a common inhabitant of the avian and mammalian gastrointestinal tracts and can behave commensally or pathogenically. Some enteric diseases caused by type A C. perfringens, including bovine clostridial abomasitis, remain poorly understood. To investigate the potential basis of virulence in strains causing this disease, we sequenced the genome of a type A C. perfringens isolate (strain F262) from a case of bovine clostridial abomasitis. The ～3.34 Mbp chromosome of C. perfringens F262 is predicted to contain 3163 protein-coding genes, 76 tRNA genes, and an integrated plasmid sequence, Cfrag (～18 kb). In addition, sequences of two complete circular plasmids, pF262C (4.8 kb) and pF262D (9.1 kb), and two incomplete plasmid fragments, pF262A (48.5 kb) and pF262B (50.0 kb), were identified. Comparison of the chromosome sequence of C. perfringens F262 to complete C. perfringens chromosomes, plasmids and phages revealed 261 unique genes. No novel toxin genes related to previously described clostridial toxins were identified: 60% of the 261 unique genes were hypothetical proteins. There was a two base pair deletion in virS, a gene reported to encode the main sensor kinase involved in virulence gene activation. Despite this frameshift mutation, C. perfringens F262 expressed perfringolysin O, alpha-toxin and the beta2-toxin, suggesting that another regulation system might contribute to the pathogenicity of this strain. Two complete plasmids, pF262C (4.8 kb) and pF262D (9.1 kb), unique to this strain of C. perfringens were identified.     

坏疽病原体快速检测方法的临床应用

目的:利用荧光定量PCR技术,建立一种快速、敏感、特异的检测产气荚膜梭菌的方法,及时用于指导临床治疗。方法:以产气荚膜梭菌16srRNA基因作为靶序列,设计一对特异引物和探针,以伤口分泌物和脓液提取的核酸作为模板,利用已经优化的引物和探针进行PCR反应;同时与细菌培养作比较,验证此方法的快速性、敏感性及特异性。结果:建立的反应体系在上游引物浓度为0.45μmol/L,下游引物浓度为0.15μmol/L,探针浓度为0.3μmol/L时,具有很好的敏感性,与21种其他细菌均无交叉反应,其敏感性为9cfu/反应体系。荧光定量PCR检测结果与细菌培养结果完全一致。结论:所建立的荧光定量PCR方法特异、灵敏、快速,能对产气荚膜梭菌感染做出准确的检测报告,具有对战时高发疾病气性坏疽进行快速和定量检测潜质。     

筛选转基因动物的新方法——PCR及其产物测序法

用特异性引物对肌球蛋白轻链2启动子(myosin light chain-2,MLC₂)-糜酶融合基因的转基因新生鼠鼠尾DNA进行PCR筛选, 低熔点琼脂糖凝胶电泳回收阳性样品PCR所扩出的DNA条带,纯化后用同一对引物中的一个进行单引物PCR测序,与所转外源基因序列比较,进一步确定整合有外源基因的阳性鼠.PCR及PCR 产物测序法检测转基因动物具有操作方便,灵敏度高及特异性强等优点.