铁自噬与铁死亡及其相关疾病

铁是血红素、线粒体呼吸链复合体和各种生物酶的重要辅助因子,参与氧气运输、氧化还原反应和代谢物合成等生物过程。铁蛋白(ferritin)是一种铁存储蛋白质,通过储存和释放铁来维持机体内铁平衡。铁自噬(ferritinophagy)作为一种选择性自噬方式,介导铁蛋白降解释放游离铁,参与细胞内铁含量的调控。适度铁自噬维持细胞内铁含量稳定,但铁自噬过度会释放出大量游离铁。通过芬顿 (Fenton)反应催化产生大量的活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS),发生脂质过氧化造成细胞受损。因此,铁自噬在维持细胞生理性铁稳态中发挥至关重要的作用。核受体共激活因子4 (nuclear receptor co-activator 4, NCOA4)被认为是铁自噬的关键调节因子,与铁蛋白靶向结合,并传递至溶酶体中降解释放游离铁,其介导的铁自噬构成了铁代谢的重要组成部分。最新研究表明,NCOA4受体内铁含量、自噬、溶酶体和低氧等因素的调控。NCOA4介导的铁蛋白降解与铁死亡(ferroptosis)有关。铁死亡是自噬性细胞死亡过程。铁自噬通过调节细胞铁稳态和细胞ROS生成,成为诱导铁死亡的上游机制,与贫血、神经退行性疾病、癌症、缺血/再灌注损伤与疾病的发生发展密切相关。本文针对NCOA4介导的铁自噬通路在铁死亡中的功能特征,探讨NCOA4在这些疾病中的作用,可能为相关疾病的治疗提供启示。     

铁死亡的生化过程及对肿瘤的影响

铁死亡(ferroptosis）是近年提出的一种调节性细胞死亡方式,主要依赖于细胞内铁和脂质活性氧（reactive oxygen species, ROS）积累所引起的细胞死亡。铁死亡的发生与多种生物化学过程密切相关,包括多不饱和脂肪酸、铁和氨基酸代谢,以及谷胱甘肽、磷脂、烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸（nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, NADPH）和辅酶Q10的生物合成。与正常细胞相比,肿瘤细胞内ROS水平通常较高,因而与ROS有关的铁死亡对肿瘤疾病的影响引人注目。在调节肿瘤细胞如卵巢恶性肿瘤、头颈部癌、弥漫性大B细胞淋巴瘤、肝癌,以及横纹肌肉瘤的生长和增殖中,铁死亡发挥了不可忽视的作用。本文主要阐述了各种生物化学过程对铁死亡的影响,以及铁死亡在肿瘤疾病中的研究进展,为肿瘤疾病的治疗提供新思路。     

铁死亡的表观遗传调控机制

铁死亡是一种新型的细胞程序性死亡方式,参与多种疾病的发生发展。对铁死亡调控机制的深入研究会帮助我们从新的角度去认识疾病的发生机制和探究潜在的药物干预靶点。因此,本文对铁死亡的表观遗传调控机制的最新研究进展进行了综述。研究发现,组蛋白的修饰如组蛋白甲基化、乙酰化和单泛素化等,能够通过激活或抑制铁死亡相关的溶质载体家族7成员11(recombinant solute carrier family 7 Member 11,SLC7A11)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4(glutathione peroxidase 4,GPX4)等基因的转录进而调控铁死亡的发生。此外,DNA/RNA甲基化也影响着铁死亡的发生,如GPX4上游DNA甲基化的增加会导致脂质活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)的积累从而促进细胞发生铁死亡。本文综述了近些年参与铁死亡调控的包括小分子RNA(microRNA)、长非编码RNA(long non-coding RNA,lncRNA)和环状RNA(circular RNA,circRNA)在内的非编码RNA的研究,发现非编码RNA也可以通过靶向调控谷胱甘肽(glutathione,GSH)合成、脂质ROS和GPX4活性等,在多种疾病尤其是肿瘤疾病的铁死亡过程中起举足轻重的作用。     

铁死亡在呼吸系统疾病中的研究进展及应用

铁死亡(ferroptosis)是一种新发现的细胞死亡调控方式,依赖于铁和活性氧簇,主要特征是细胞内脂质过氧化物堆积。与其他细胞死亡方式相比,铁死亡在形态、生物化学、遗传学等方面有自身的特点。铁死亡的发生机制与非酶促反应或者酶促反应触发铁催化的脂质过氧化物堆积有关。近年来的研究显示铁死亡与血液系统、心脑血管、肝肾系统等多种疾病相关,然而在呼吸系统疾病中的研究相对较少。本文就铁死亡的定义、机制、诱导剂、病理生理状态下的铁死亡以及铁死亡在呼吸系统疾病中的相关研究展开综述,以期为呼吸系统疾病的临床防治提供新思路、新靶点。     

细胞铁死亡的形态学特征及相关疾病治疗

铁死亡是一种铁依赖的脂质过氧化产物积累引发的细胞死亡,与细胞凋亡、程序性坏死等同属受调控的细胞死亡方式,参与多种疾病的发生、发展,如脑卒中、神经退行性疾病、癌症等。通过调控铁死亡来干预疾病的发生发展,已成为目前研究的热点和焦点。大量研究表明,铁死亡与已知的其他细胞死亡类型在形态学方面存在着较大的差异。本文重点就铁死亡形态学特征与其他形式的细胞死亡进行比较,以期更加准确地认识铁死亡和其他形式的细胞死亡,为临床病理学鉴别、诊断提供重要依据。     

铁死亡与肾脏疾病相关性的研究进展

铁死亡（ferroptosis）是2012年新发现的一种非凋亡的细胞死亡形式,其实质是依赖铁离子的活性氧（reactive oxygen species,ROS）和脂质氢过氧化物蓄积导致的线粒体形态改变和细胞膜磷脂过氧化损伤。铁死亡与许多肾脏疾病的病理生理进程密切相关。然而铁死亡参与肾脏疾病损伤的分子生物学机制尚缺乏系统和深入的认识。针对铁死亡的调控机制、研究进展及其在肾脏相关疾病中的作用作一综述,以期为肾脏疾病的治疗提供新思路、新靶点。     

铁死亡调控机制与肿瘤发生与治疗的研究进展

铁死亡是一种不同于凋亡与坏死的新细胞死亡方式,它与铁代谢及氧化损伤具有高度相关性,并以胞质和脂质的活性氧明显增多、线粒体体积变小以及膜密度增厚为死亡标志。近来研究者发现铁死亡在许多疾病中发挥着重要的作用。本文通过对铁死亡及其机制的总结分析,阐明铁死亡及其机制在肿瘤发生与治疗中相关研究和最新进展。     

细胞程序性死亡在卵泡闭锁中的作用及机制

卵泡颗粒细胞凋亡和自噬在动物卵巢卵泡闭锁过程中发挥重要的调控作用。新近研究表明,铁死亡和焦亡也参与卵巢卵泡闭锁过程。铁死亡是一种铁依赖性脂质过氧化和活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)积累引起的细胞死亡形式。研究证实,自噬和凋亡介导的卵泡闭锁过程中也有典型的铁死亡特征。细胞焦亡是依赖于Gasdermin蛋白的促炎性细胞死亡,可通过调节卵泡颗粒细胞调控卵巢繁殖性能。本文综述了几种细胞程序性死亡独立或相互作用参与调控卵泡闭锁的作用及机制,以期扩展卵泡闭锁机制的理论研究,为细胞程序性细胞死亡诱导卵泡闭锁的作用机制提供理论参考。     

铁死亡与脑卒中的神经损伤

铁死亡是近年来新发现的一种可调控性细胞死亡形式。与凋亡或坏死等细胞死亡方式不同,铁死亡主要特征是铁依赖的脂质过氧化诱导细胞死亡。铁、脂质和氨基酸代谢是调控铁死亡的主要途径,这个过程能被谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4 (GPX4)和铁死亡抑制蛋白1 (FSP1)拮抗。铁死亡参与神经系统疾病、癌症等多种疾病的发生和发展过程。近年来研究揭示,铁死亡在脑卒中时能被诱导并加重脑损伤,铁死亡的抑制剂可以减轻脑卒中损伤,铁死亡成为脑卒中干预的潜在靶点。目前研究发现,干预铁死亡能改善脑卒中损伤,并且出血性和缺血性脑卒中铁死亡的发生机制存在异同:相同点是都通过增加细胞内Fe~(2+)与脂质过氧化物的含量诱导铁死亡的发生,不同点是,出血性和缺血性脑卒中时与铁死亡有关的关键通路变化不同,Fe~(2+)与脂质过氧化物含量增多的机制不同。目前,对于在脑卒中时铁死亡的研究更多的是侧重于铁死亡的关键通路,在调控机制方面仍有待进一步探究。在此,本文系统地回顾了目前关于铁死亡在脑卒中方面作用的文献,阐述当前铁死亡的发生机制,总结脑卒中时铁死亡相关的研究发现,为铁死亡在脑卒中治疗方法的应用方面提供新的思路。     

线粒体在铁死亡中的形态特征和作用

铁死亡是铁依赖性的脂质过氧化作用驱动的一种独特的细胞死亡方式。与细胞凋亡、自噬性程序性细胞死亡和细胞焦亡等细胞死亡方式不同，铁死亡的主要特征是线粒体形态的改变，包括线粒体膜变得致密并伴随体积变小，以及外膜破裂和线粒体嵴的减少或消失。线粒体作为细胞代谢的核心，是铁代谢、脂质代谢和能量代谢中的重要细胞器。但是，线粒体如何参与铁死亡并在其进程中发挥怎样的作用仍存在争议。本文综述了现有对铁死亡发生和防御机制的认识，并且对线粒体在铁死亡进程中的促进和抑制作用进行了描述和分析，包括线粒体三羧酸循环和糖酵解、线粒体活性氧、线粒体脂质代谢对铁死亡的积极驱动过程，以及通过线粒体铁蛋白、线粒体二氢乳酸脱氢酶等分子对线粒体脂质过氧化物解毒并抑制铁死亡的作用机制。最后补充说明了其他涉及铁死亡的线粒体分子调控机制。本文通过综述线粒体在铁死亡进程中的最新研究进展，旨在对深入了解铁死亡中线粒体的功能及其对铁死亡发生发展的作用机制，为细胞生物学基础研究及临床相关疾病的研究提供理论依据和参考。     

Redox Modulation and Induction of Ferroptosis as a New Therapeutic Strategy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Ferroptosis, a newly discovered form of cell death mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation, has recently been shown to have an impact on various cancer types; however, so far there are only few studies about its role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The delicate equilibrium of ROS in cancer cells has found to be crucial for cell survival, thus increased levels may trigger ferroptosis in HCC.In our study, we investigated the effect of different ROS modulators and ferroptosis inducers on a human HCC cell line and a human hepatoblastoma cell line. We identified a novel synergistic cell death induction by the combination of Auranofin and buthionine sulfoxime (BSO) or by Erastin and BSO at subtoxic concentrations. We found a caspase-independent, redox-regulated cell death, which could be rescued by different inhibitors of ferroptosis. Both cotreatments stimulated lipid peroxidation. All these findings indicated ferroptotic cell death. Both cotreatments affected the canonical ferroptosis pathway through GPX4 downregulation. We also found an accumulation of Nrf2 and HO-1, indicating an additional effect on the non-canonical pathway. Our results implicate that targeting these two main ferroptotic pathways simultaneously can overcome chemotherapy resistance in HCC.     

Hemin-induced platelet activation and ferroptosis is mediated through ROS-driven proteasomal activity and inflammasome activation: Protection by Melatonin

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are capable of inducing cell death or apoptosis. Recently, we demonstrated that lipid-ROS can mediate ferroptosis and activation of human platelets. Ferroptosis is an intracellular iron-mediated cell death, distinct from classical apoptosis and necrosis, which is mediated through the accumulation of ROS, lipid peroxides and depletion of cellular GSH. Lately, we demonstrated that hemoglobin degradation product hemin induces ferroptosis in platelets via ROS and lipid peroxidation. In this study, we demonstrate that hemin-induced ferroptosis in platelets is mediated through ROS-driven proteasome activity and inflammasome activation, which were mitigated by Melatonin (MLT). Although inflammasome activation is linked with pyroptosis, it is still not clear whether ferroptosis is associated with inflammasome activation. Our study for the first time demonstrates an association of platelet activation/ferroptosis with proteasome activity and inflammasome activation. Although, high-throughput screening has recognized ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) and liproxstatin-1 (Lip-1) as potent ferroptosis inhibitors, having an endogenous antioxidant such as MLT as ferroptosis inhibitor is of high interest. MLT is a well-known chronobiotic hormone that regulates the circadian rhythms in vertebrates. It also exhibits potent antioxidant and ROS quenching capabilities. MLT can regulate fundamental cellular functions by exhibiting cytoprotective, oncostatic, antiaging, anti-venom, and immunomodulatory activities. The ROS scavenging capacity of MLT is key for its cytoprotective and anti-apoptotic properties. Considering the anti-ferroptotic and anti-apoptotic potentials of MLT, it could be a promising clinical application to treat hemolytic, thrombotic and thrombocytopenic conditions. Therefore, we propose MLT as a pharmacological and therapeutic agent to inhibit ferroptosis and platelet activation.     

Ferroptosis: Role of lipid peroxidation,iron and ferritinophagy

Ferroptosis is a form of regulated cell death that is dependent on iron and reactive oxygen species (ROS) and is characterized by lipid peroxidation. It is morphologically and biochemically distinct and disparate from other processes of cell death. As ferroptosis is induced by inhibition of cysteine uptake or inactivation of the lipid repair enzyme glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), the process is favored by chemical or mutational inhibition of the cystine/glutamate antiporter and culminates in the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the form of lipid hydroperoxides. Excessive lipid peroxidation leads to death by ferroptosis and the phenotype is accentuated respectively by the repletion and depletion of iron and glutathione in cells. Furthermore, oxidized phosphatidylethanolamines (PE) harbouring arachidonoyl (AA) and adrenoyl moieties (AdA) have been shown as proximate executioners of ferroptosis. Induction of ferroptosis due to cysteine depletion leads to the degradation of ferritin (i.e. ferritinophagy), which releases iron via the NCOA4-mediated autophagy pathway. Evidence of the manifestation of ferroptosis in vivo in iron overload mice mutants is emerging. Thus, a concerted synchronization of iron availability, ROS generation, glutamate excess and cysteine deficit leads to ferroptosis. A number of questions on the molecular mechanisms of some features of ferroptosis are highlighted as subjects for future investigations.     

Mitochondria regulation in ferroptosis

Ferroptosis is recognized as a new form of regulated cell death which is initiated by severe lipid peroxidation relying on reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and iron overload. This iron-dependent cell death manifests evident morphological, biochemical and genetic differences from other forms of regulated cell death, such as apoptosis, autophagy, necrosis and pyroptosis. Ferroptosis was primarily characterized by condensed mitochondrial membrane densities and smaller volume than normal mitochondria, as well as the diminished or vanished of mitochondria crista and outer membrane ruptured. Mitochondria take the center role in iron metabolism, as well as substance and energy metabolism as it’s the major organelle in iron utilization, catabolic and anabolic pathways. Interference of key regulators of mitochondrial lipid metabolism (e.g., ASCF2 and CS), iron homeostasis (e.g., ferritin, mitoferrin1/2 and NEET proteins), glutamine metabolism and other signaling pathways make a difference to ferroptotic sensitivity. Targeted induction of ferroptosis was also considered as a potential therapeutic strategy to some oxidative stress diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, ischemia-reperfusion injury, traumatic spinal cord injury. However, the pertinence between mitochondria and ferroptosis is still in dispute. Here we systematic elucidate the morphological characteristics and metabolic regulation of mitochondria in the regulation of ferroptosis.     

Molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis and its role in cancer therapy

Ferroptosis is a newly defined programmed cell death process with the hallmark of the accumulation of iron‐dependent lipid peroxides. The term was first coined in 2012 by the Stockwell Lab, who described a unique type of cell death induced by the small molecules erastin or RSL3. Ferroptosis is distinct from other already established programmed cell death and has unique morphological and bioenergetic features. The physiological role of ferroptosis during development has not been well characterized. However, ferroptosis shows great potentials during the cancer therapy. Great progress has been made in exploring the mechanisms of ferroptosis. In this review, we focus on the molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis, the small molecules functioning in ferroptosis initiation and ferroptosis sensitivity in different cancers. We are also concerned with the new arising questions in this particular research area that remains unanswered.     

Cytoglobin promotes sensitivity to ferroptosis by regulating p53-YAP1 axis in colon cancer cells

Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent mode of non-apoptotic cell death characterized by accumulation of lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS). As a regulator of ROS, cytoglobin (CYGB) plays an important role in oxygen homeostasis and acts as a tumour suppressor. However, the mechanism by which CYGB regulates cell death is largely unknown. Here, we show that CYGB overexpression increased ROS accumulation and disrupted mitochondrial function as determined by the oxygen consumption rate and membrane potential. Importantly, ferroptotic features with accumulated lipid ROS and malondialdehyde were observed in CYGB-overexpressing colorectal cancer cells. Moreover, CYGB significantly increased the sensitivity of cancer cells to RSL3- and erastin-induced ferroptotic cell death. Mechanically, both YAP1 and p53 were significantly increased based on the RNA sequencing. The knock-down of YAP1 alleviated production of lipid ROS and sensitivity to ferroptosis in CYGB overexpressed cells. Furthermore, YAP1 was identified to be inhibited by p53 knock-down. Finally, high expression level of CYGB had the close correlation with key genes YAP1 and ACSL4 in ferroptosis pathway in colon cancer based on analysis from TCGA data. Collectively, our results demonstrated a novel tumour suppressor role of CYGB through p53-YAP1 axis in regulating ferroptosis and suggested a potential therapeutic approach for colon cancer.     

The role of ferroptosis in metabolic diseases

The annual incidence of metabolic diseases such as diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), osteoporosis, and atherosclerosis (AS) is increasing, resulting in a heavy burden on human health and the social economy. Ferroptosis is a novel form of programmed cell death driven by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation, which was discovered in recent years. Emerging evidence has suggested that ferroptosis contributes to the development of metabolic diseases. Here, we summarize the mechanisms and molecular signaling pathways involved in ferroptosis. Then we discuss the role of ferroptosis in metabolic diseases. Finally, we analyze the potential of targeting ferroptosis as a promising therapeutic approach for metabolic diseases.     

Acid sphingomyelinase-dependent autophagic degradation of GPX4 is critical for the execution of ferroptosis

Ferroptosis is a type of regulated cell death characterized by ROS accumulation and devastating lipid peroxidation (LPO). The role of acid sphingomyelinase (ASM), a key enzyme in sphingolipid metabolism, in the induction of apoptosis has been studied; however, to date its role in ferroptosis is unclear. In this study, we report that ASM plays a hitherto unanticipated role in promoting ferroptosis. Mechanistically, Erastin (Era) treatment results in the activation of ASM and generation of ceramide, which are required for the Era-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and LPO. Inhibition of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NADPH oxidase) or removal of intracellular ROS, significantly reduced Era-induced ASM activation, suggesting that NADPH oxidase-derived ROS regulated ASM-initiated redox signaling in a positive feedback manner. Moreover, ASM-mediated activation of autophagy plays a critical role in ferroptosis inducers (FINs)-induced glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) degradation and ferroptosis activation. Genetic or pharmacological inhibition of ASM diminishes Era-induced features of autophagy, GPX4 degradation, LPO, and subsequent ferroptosis. Importantly, genetic activation of ASM increases ferroptosis in cancer cells induced by various FINs. Collectively, these findings reveal that ASM plays a novel role in ferroptosis that could be exploited to improve pathological conditions that link to ferroptosis.Subject terms: Lipid peroxides, Cancer models, Macroautophagy, Lipid signalling