白菜和甘蓝基因组转座子表达及其对基因调控的潜在影响

转座子或转座元件是大多数真核生物基因组的主要组成成分。甘蓝(Brassica oleracea)基因组比白菜(B. rapa)大主要是转座子的扩增差异造成的。然而, 这两个芸薹属近缘物种转座子表达水平以及对基因的调控和功能的影响目前还不清楚。文章对白菜和甘蓝叶、根、茎3个器官的转录组数据进行了初步分析。结果显示, 转座子的表达量很低, 转录组reads中有1%来自转座子的转录本; 转座子的表达存在器官差异, 且不同类别和家族的转座子表达量相差很大, 相同类别和同一家族的转座子在白菜和甘蓝基因组中的表达活性也不相同。进一步鉴定到转录读出的LTR反转座子, 其与下游基因距离小于2 kb的有41个, 小于100 bp的有9个, 这些LTR的转录读出很可能通过正义或反义的转录本激活或干扰下游基因的表达。同时, 具有转录读出的intact LTR比solo LTR具有更强的读出活性。通过深入分析转座子的插入位点发现, 白菜基因组中转座子插入基因内部的频率比甘蓝基因组中的高; 与反转座子相比, DNA转座子更偏向于插入或保留在基因的内含子当中。这些结果为认识转座子对其他蛋白编码基因的影响提供了基础。     

家蚕LTR逆转录转座子的鉴定、分类及系统发育分析

转座子是真核生物基因组的重要组成成分。为了研究家蚕Bombyx mori长末端重复序列 (long terminal repeat, LTR)逆转录转座子的分类及进化, 本研究采用de novo预测和同源性搜索相结合的方法, 在家蚕基因组中共鉴定出了38个LTR逆转录转座子家族, 序列长度占整个基因组的0.64%, 远小于先前预测的11.8%, 其中有6个家族为本研究的新发现。38个家族中, 26个家族有表达序列标签 (expression sequence tag, EST)证据, 表明这些家族具有潜在的活性。对有EST证据的6个家族和没有EST证据的5个家族用RT-PCR进行了组织表达谱实验, 结果表明这11个家族在一些组织中有表达, 这进一步证实了这些家族具有转录活性, 基于此我们推测家蚕中大部分的LTR逆转录转座子家族很可能具有潜在活性。对转座子的插入时间进行估计, 结果表明绝大部分元件都是最近1百万年内插入到家蚕基因组中的。我们还比较了黑腹果蝇Drosophila melanogaster、 冈比亚按蚊Anopheles gambiae和家蚕B. mori中Ty3/Gypsy超家族分支的差异, 结果表明不同枝在不同昆虫中有着不同的扩张。家蚕中LTR逆转录转座子的鉴定和系统分析有助于我们理解逆转录转座子在昆虫进化中的作用。     

植物活性长末端重复序列反转录转座子研究进展

长末端重复序列(Long terminal repeat,LTR)反转录转座子是真核生物基因组中普遍存在的一类可移动的DNA序列,它们以RNA为媒介,通过"复制粘贴"机制在基因组中不断自我复制。在高等植物中,许多活性的LTR反转录转座子已被详尽研究并应用于分子标记技术、基因标签、插入型突变及基因功能等分析。本文对植物活性LTR反转录转座子进行全面的调查,并对其结构、拷贝数和分布以及转座特性进行系统的归纳,分析了植物活性LTR反转录转座子的gag(种属特异抗原)和pol(聚合酶)序列特征,以及LTR序列中顺式调控元件的分布。研究发现自主有活性的LTR反转录转座子必须具备LTR区域以及编码Gag、Pr、Int、Rt和Rh蛋白的基因区。其中两端LTR区域具有高度同源性且富含顺式调控元件;Rt蛋白必备RVT结构域;Rh蛋白必备RNase_H1_RT结构域。这些结果为后续植物活性LTR反转录转座子的鉴定和功能分析奠定了重要基础。     

piRNA抑制基因转座的分子机制

转座子是一类可以在染色体上或不同染色体间自由移动的DNA。在高等生物中,处于活跃状态的转座子多为通过RNA中间体进行转座的逆转录转座子。由于逆转录转座子在细胞基因组中占有很高的比例,它的频繁转座能引起细胞基因组结构和功能的改变,导致癌症等严重基因疾病的发生,因此宿主细胞在长期的进化中形成了多种自我保护机制用以控制逆转录转座子活性。属于非编码小RNA的piRNA以其独特的机制在转录及转录后水平控制逆转录转座子RNA中间体的产生,抑制了逆转录转座过程的发生。本文总结了近年来piRNA控制转座子转座相关分子机制的研究进展,以期为转座子及基因调控方面的研究工作提供一些参考。     

植物LTR类反转录转座子序列分析识别方法

LTR类反转录转座子(Long terminal repeat retrotransponson)是真核生物中的一类重要转座元件,具有分布广泛、异质性高等特点,在真核生物基因组进化中起着重要作用,现广泛应用于植物的基因功能分析和遗传多样性研究等方面。LTR类反转录转座子的序列识别是其应用的前提条件,因此对LTR类反转录转座子的序列鉴定和分析方法的研究具有重要的理论意义和实际应用价值。LTR类反转录转座子序列的生物信息学分析软件按原理可大致分为序列比对分析和相关序列保守区域识别鉴定两类。比对软件如BLAST、DNAstar等,是一种序列相似性搜索程序,通过与已知的反转录转座子序列比对后的序列相似性来判断未知序列是否是反转录转座子序列,但这类软件不能直接获得具体的LTR等特征序列的相关信息,不能对反转录转座子序列的全长进行识别。识别鉴定软件按原理可分为从头算起法、比较基因组法、同源搜索法和结构基础法4种,如LTR-Finder等基于从头算起法的识别鉴定软件,可对LTR类反转录转座子全序列进行较准确地预测和注释,RepeatMasker等基于同源搜索法的软件,通过与数据库中的序列的相似性比对后发现可能存在的LTR类反转录转座子。文章对不同的LTR类反转录转座子预测方法进行了比较和分析,在此基础上归纳总结出一套分析LTR类反转录转座子序列的操作流程,旨在为LTR类反转录转座子序列的分析提供参考。     

美洲大蠊基因组重复序列分析

重复序列是真核生物基因组的重要组成部分。一些重复序列,如自主型的逆转录转座子LINE,在昆虫的系统进化和遗传多样性研究方面得到了广泛的应用。de novo从头预测和基于同源比对预测相结合的方法被用来搜索美洲大蠊Periplaneta americana基因组,共鉴定出大约占全基因组62%的重复序列。研究发现,散在重复序列中,DNA转座子占美洲大蠊基因组的16.18%;逆转座元件中LINE最多,占基因组的13.64%,SINE和LTR分别占基因组的3.52%和1.32%。LINEs中的Bov Bs亚家族在所有转座子亚家族中比例最高(约6.73%)。美洲大蠊与德国小蠊Blattella germanica相比,除LTR外,其他类型的转座子占基因组的比例均高于德国小蠊。通过分析逆转录转座子反转录酶完整度、氨基酸序列相似度及遗传距离,从美洲大蠊基因组中鉴定出一类BovBs:RTE-1_PAm。BovBs的反转录酶氨基酸序列的系统树表明,美洲大蠊与内华达古白蚁Zootermopsis nevadensis的进化关系比与其同属蜚蠊科Blattidae的德国小蠊的关系更近。昆虫中BovBs的进化关系与传统核基因进化关系的不同,表明转座子的进化相对宿主基因的进化具有一定的独立性。     

St基因组中的CRW同源序列在偃麦草中的FISH分析

为了确定十倍体长穗偃麦草(Thinopyrum ponticum, Liu & Wang)和六倍体中间偃麦草(Th. intermedium, [Host] Barkworth & Dewey )的基因组组成, 根据野生一粒小麦(Triticum boeoticum)着丝粒自主型反转录转座子(CRW)序列设计特异引物, 以二倍体拟鹅观草(Pseudoroegneria spicata, Á Löve )基因组 DNA为模板进行PCR扩增, 筛选到一条St基因组着丝粒区相对特异反转录转座子的部分序列pStC1, 长度为1.755 kb (GenBank登录号: FJ952565), 其中有800 bp与小麦着丝粒反转录转座子(CRW)的LTR区高度同源, 另有小部分片段与其外壳蛋白编码基因(gag)部分同源, 并且包含一段富含AGCAAC碱基的重复序列。以pStC1为探针, 对十倍体长穗偃麦草的FISH检测结果显示其基因组组成为两个St组3个E组(St₁St₂E^eE^bE^x); pStC1与中间偃麦草杂交时, 不仅St基因组上有强烈的荧光信号, 而且E基因组一些染色体的近着丝粒区域也有杂交信号, 说明偃麦草属异源多倍体物种在其形成及进化过程中St与E基因组之间在着丝粒及近着丝粒相关区域可能存在协同进化。     

毛竹LTR反转录转座子PHRE6的克隆与转录活性分析

长末端重复序列(long terminal repeat,LTR)反转录转座子是真核生物基因组中普遍存在的一类可移动的DNA序列,因两端具有长末端重复序列而得名。大多数LTR反转录转座子能够感受外界环境的变化,具有转录激活特性和转座激活特性。该研究从毛竹(Phyllostachys edulis,Ph.edulis)基因组中克隆出一条完整的LTR反转录转座子,命名为PHRE6(Phyllostachys edulisretrotransposons 6),该转座子全长为5 620 bp,具有GAG和POL保守结构域。通过荧光定量PCR检测了PHRE6在DNA甲基化抑制剂和不同胁迫处理(包括辐照、高温、低温、高盐)的毛竹实生苗中转录水平的变化,结果表明,在DNA甲基化抑制剂处理后和高温(42°C)、低温(16°C、4°C)、高盐(100 mmol/L、200 mmol/L、300 mmol/L NaCl溶液)胁迫处理下PHRE6表达水平均有显著提高。以上结果说明,PHRE6是一个具有转录活性的反转录转座子,可能参与毛竹逆境响应过程。     

植物LTR反转录转座子的研究进展

反转录转座子是真核生物基因组中普遍存在的一类可移动的遗传因子,它们以RNA为媒介,在基因组中不断自我复制。在高等植物中,反转录转座子是基因组的重要成分之一。反转录转座子可以分为5大类型,其中以长末端重复（LTR）类型报道较多。LTR类型由于其首尾具有长末端重复序列,内部含有PBS、PPT、GAG和POL开放阅读框、TSD等结构,可以采用生物信息学软件进行预测。LTR反转录转座子的活性受到自身甲基化和环境因素的影响,DNA甲基化抑制反转录转座子转座,而外界环境的刺激能够激活转座子,从而影响插入位点周边基因的表达。同时由于LTR反转录转座子在植物中普遍存在,丰富的拷贝数以及多态性为新型分子标记（RBIP、SSAP、IRAP、REMAP）的开发提供了良好的素材。该文对近年来国内外有关植物反转录转座子的类型、结构特征、 LTR反转录转座子的活性及其影响因素、 LTR反转录转座子的预测以及标记开发等方面的研究进展进行综述。     

植物基因组中的非LTR反转录转座子SINEs和LINEs

反转录转座子是基因组进化的推动者之一。分为LTR和非LTR两种类型。前者是真核基因组的主要组分,结构和转座方式与逆转录病毒类似。后者是最初发现于动物基因组新近发现在植物基因组中也广泛存在的新型重复序列,包括LINEs(long interspersed nuclear elements)和SINEs(short interspersed nuclear elements)两个亚型。它们大多因自身或受宿主基因组的调控而失去转座活性。其转座机理目前还不十分清楚,推测LINEs可以自主转座,SINEs依赖其他转座子被动转座。种系分析认为LINEs可能是最古老的反转录转座子,SINEs的起源未知。文章对以上内容进行了归纳和讨论。     

水稻基因组中一类具有潜在转座活性的Solo—LTR的结构分析和鉴定

在水稻4号染色体两个BAC克隆序列分析中,发现了两个solo-LTR,分别命名为SLTR1和SLTR2。它们分别位于水稻18S rRNA基因和一逆转座子内部。序列比较发现,SLTR1和SLTR2存在着较高的同源性,并与水稻逆转座子RIRE8的LTR序列高度同源,分别为89.1%和70.1%。它们属于一类水稻gypsy类型逆转座子。利用SLTR1和SLTR2与水稻DNA杂交,结果显示两者广泛分布于水稻基因组中,是一类高拷贝重复序列。分别利用SLTR1和SLTR2的两侧特异性序列设计引物进行PCR扩增,结果发现在基因组的相应位置并不存在SLTR1或SLTR2;利用它们两侧被打断基因的特异性片段杂交基因组DNA,得到了同样的结果。这意味着SLTR1和SLTR2来源于基因组的其它位置,并通过某种转座的过程进入18S rRNA基因和另一逆转座子内部。Solo-LTR存在着这种潜在的转座活性,对于进一步研究solo-LTR的来源以及其在基因组进货和基因的表达调控中具有一定的意义。     

RIRE2, a novel gypsy-type retrotransposon from rice

The 441-bp DNA segment in a PCR-amplified fragment from Oryza sativa cv. IR36 was found to have a sequence with features characteristic of LTRs of retroelements, which was named RIRE2 (Rice retroelement #2) and further analyzed. Cloning and sequencing analyses of the DNA segments connected to LTR-like sequence showed that RIRE2 has a long internal region almost 10 kb long that is flanked by LTR-like sequences. This internal region carries a primer binding site (PBS) and polypurine tract (PPT) which are necessary for cDNA synthesis of retroelements. The PBS sequence is complementary to the 3' end region of tRNA(Arg). The internal region has an rt gene homologous to that of gypsy-type retrotransposons, evidence that RIRE2 is indeed a retrotransposon related to gypsy from Drosophila. RIRE2 has an extra sequence more than 4 kb long in the region downstream of gag-pol. Phylogenetic analysis of the putative amino-acid sequences of the rt gene as well as the int gene showed that RIRE2 is related to a group of gypsy-type retrotransposons of a large size that include Grande1-4 of teosinte, Tat4-1 and Athila1-1 of Arabidopsis thaliana, and Cyclops-2 of pea, but distantly related to any other group of gypsy-type retrotransposons, including RIRE3 and RIRE8 of rice. RIRE2 and Grande1-4 had the highest homology in the gag-pol region, but the nucleotide sequences of the LTR regions differed. Both elements had significant homology in the middle area of the extra regions downstream of gag-pol, in which they had an open reading frame encoding a protein with no known function on the opposite strand from that coding for gag-pol.     

Replication of nonautonomous retroelements in soybean appears to be both recent and common

Retrotransposons and their remnants often constitute more than 50% of higher plant genomes. Although extensively studied in monocot crops such as maize (Zea mays) and rice (Oryza sativa), the impact of retrotransposons on dicot crop genomes is not well documented. Here, we present an analysis of retrotransposons in soybean (Glycine max). Analysis of approximately 3.7 megabases (Mb) of genomic sequence, including 0.87 Mb of pericentromeric sequence, uncovered 45 intact long terminal repeat (LTR)-retrotransposons. The ratio of intact elements to solo LTRs was 8:1, one of the highest reported to date in plants, suggesting that removal of retrotransposons by homologous recombination between LTRs is occurring more slowly in soybean than in previously characterized plant species. Analysis of paired LTR sequences uncovered a low frequency of deletions relative to base substitutions, indicating that removal of retrotransposon sequences by illegitimate recombination is also operating more slowly. Significantly, we identified three subfamilies of nonautonomous elements that have replicated in the recent past, suggesting that retrotransposition can be catalyzed in trans by autonomous elements elsewhere in the genome. Analysis of 1.6 Mb of sequence from Glycine tomentella, a wild perennial relative of soybean, uncovered 23 intact retroelements, two of which had accumulated no mutations in their LTRs, indicating very recent insertion. A similar pattern was found in 0.94 Mb of sequence from Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean). Thus, autonomous and nonautonomous retrotransposons appear to be both abundant and active in Glycine and Phaseolus. The impact of nonautonomous retrotransposon replication on genome size appears to be much greater than previously appreciated.     

A new gypsy-type retrotransposon, RIRE7: preferential insertion into the tandem repeat sequence TrsD in pericentromeric heterochromatin regions of rice chromosomes

A portion of an insertion sequence present in a member of the RIRE3 family of retrotransposons in Oryza sativa L. cv. IR36 was found to have an LTR sequence followed by a PBS sequence complementary to the 3'-end region of tRNAMet, indicative of another rice retrotransposon (named RIRE7). Cloning and sequencing of PCR-amplified fragments that made up all parts of the RIRE7 sequence showed that RIRE7 is a gypsy-type retrotransposon with partial homology in the pol region to the rice gypsy-type retrotransposons RIRE2 and RIRE3 identified in rice previously. Interestingly, various portions of the RIRE7 sequence were homologous to several DNA segments present in the centromere regions of cereal chromosomes. Further cloning and nucleotide sequencing of fragments flanking RIRE7 copies showed that RIRE7 was inserted into a site within a tandem repeat sequence that has a unit length of 155 bp. The tandem repeat sequence, named TrsD, was homologous to tandem repeat sequences RCS2 and CentC, previously identified in the centromeric regions of rice and maize chromosomes. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis of the metaphase chromosomes of O. sativa cv. Nipponbare showed that both RIRE7 and TrsD sequences were present in the centromere regions of the chromosomes. The presence of RIRE7 and the TrsD sequences in the centromere regions of several chromosomes was confirmed by the identification of several YAC clones whose chromosomal locations are known. Further FISH analysis of rice pachytene chromosomes showed that the TrsD sequences were located in a pericentromeric heterochromatin region. These findings strongly suggest that RIRE7 and TrsD are components of the pericentromeric heterochromatin of rice chromosomes.     

The centromere composition of multiple repetitive sequences on rice chromosome 5

The large-scale primary structure of the centromeric region of rice chromosome 5 was analyzed, the first example in a cereal species. The yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) and bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) contigs aligned on the centromere of rice chromosome 5 (CEN5) covered a distance of more than 670 kb. Strong suppression of genetic recombination, one of the features of a functional centromere, occurred along the contig region. The most remarkable feature of CEN5 is the composition of the multiple repetitive elements. Oryza-specific RCS2 short tandem repeats were clustered along less than 100 kb at one end of the contig. At least 15 copies of the conserved domain of the 1.9 kb RCE1 centromeric repeats, which are similar to the long terminal repeats (LTRs) of gypsy-type retrotransposon RIRE7, were dispersed mainly in 320 kb stretches next to RCS2 tandem clusters. Many copies of the LTR-like sequences of RIRE3 and RIRE8, another gypsy-type retrotransposon, were also found throughout the contig. On the other hand, the gagpol region was less conserved in the contig. These results indicate that the rice centromere is composed of multiple repetitive sequences with the RCS2 tandem cluster probably being situated as the core of a functional centromere of some hundreds of kilobases to megabases in length.