酵母双杂交系统在病原生物学研究中的应用

酵母双杂交系统作为一种新型的研究蛋白质之间相互作用的方法是功能基因组学和蛋白质组学中一种重要的手段,其在病原生物学的后基因组研究中也日益广泛和深入。本文将从病原体与宿主蛋白之间相互作用、病原体内蛋白之间相互作用以及病原体蛋白自身相互作用等三方面作一综述。     

感染组学 (infectomics) ———对感染性疾病的总体性和综合性研究

在感染性疾病的范畴内,目前急需一个能有效地、精确地和综合性地研究微生物感染的结构性和功能性基因组学和蛋白质组学 ( 感染组学 ) 的全面方法. 新的方法 ( 如 DNA 和蛋白质微阵列 ) 和传统方法 ( 如分子克隆、 PCR 、基因敲除,加进 (knockin) 和反义术等 ) 的结合将有助于克服今天的困难. 在感染时,微生物及其宿主的全部表型改变 ( 感染组 ) 均由微生物病原体及其宿主的基因组所编码,并在特异的微生物 - 宿主相互作用时的某些环境条件下表达. 微生物及其宿主的全部药物反应 ( 药理组 ) 可用基因组或蛋白质组的方法检出. 分析基因型和表型或表达形式的全基因组方法将最终导致对微生物的发病机理、感染性疾病的快速诊断和控制感染的新策略的全面研究. 感染性疾病中最基本的问题是,如何全面地和综合性地应用感染组学,来了解微生物病原体及其宿主的相互作用.     

超级基因表达连续分析技术

转录过程分析在宿主与病原体相互作用研究中的应用已为发病机制的认识提供了重要的见解,并与宿主及其病原体基因组序列资料的累积同步发展。本文介绍基因表达连续分析的一种改良方法,即超级基因表达分析（SuperSAGE）,这种方法可应用于宿主与病原体相互作用中转录过程分析的研究。在SuperSAGE方法中所形成的26bp尾端序列可以译解“相互作用转录过程”,即可同时定量测定宿主体内真核细胞内病原体的基因表达。此外还讨论了靶基因的快速功能分析。     

人类白细胞抗原部分基因多态性与丙型肝炎病毒感染相关性研究进展简

国内外有关宿主遗传基因与疾病关系的研究成果表明,人类白细胞抗原（HLA）在宿主免疫系统的免疫应答过程中发挥着举足轻重的作用。机体受到病原体感染后,其对病原体的清除以及疾病转归方面表现出的不同,在很大程度上取决于个体间基因组的差异。大量研究证实,HLA多态性是与丙型肝炎病毒（HCV）的易感性和清除相关的一个宿主基因,我们就该研究领域的进展进行简要综述。     

人类白细胞抗原部分基因多态性与丙型肝炎病毒感染相关性研究进展

国内外有关宿主遗传基因与疾病关系的研究成果表明,人类白细胞抗原(HLA)在宿主免疫系统的免疫应答过程中发挥着举足轻重的作用。机体受到病原体感染后,其对病原体的清除以及疾病转归方面表现出的不同,在很大程度上取决于个体间基因组的差异。大量研究证实,HLA多态性是与丙型肝炎病毒(HCV)的易感性和清除相关的一个宿主基因,我们就该研究领域的进展进行简要综述。     

体内诱导抗原技术筛选病原菌体内诱导抗原的研究进展

体内诱导基因是病原菌在宿主体内能够表达而体外培养时却不能表达的功能基因,其对病原体在宿主体内的生存和致病具有重要意义。体内诱导抗原技术(in vivo induced antigen technology, IVIAT)已广泛应用于筛选病原体体内诱导基因,相较于其他用于筛选体内诱导基因的技术,IVIAT具有无需动物模型、检测病原菌在不同感染阶段产生的抗原等独特优势。IVIAT鉴定出的体内诱导抗原对病原体在宿主中的毒力、代谢及存活具有重要意义。现就IVIAT的原理、IVIAT筛选出的人类疾病相关病原菌的体内诱导抗原及其功能研究等作一概述。     

不同种型布鲁菌间的基因获得与缺失研究

目的:了解不同种型布鲁菌间的基因差异及基因的获得与缺失情况。方法:采用生物信息学方法比较分析已测序的10株布鲁菌基因水平的差异,分析它们的核心基因组与泛基因组,对得到的差异基因用PCR验证其在19株不同生物型标准菌株中的分布情况。结果:不同种型布鲁菌在基因水平上存在较大差异,差异基因主要位于Ⅱ号染色体上;根据差异基因,鉴定了42个差异区段,这些差异区段在19株不同生物型标准菌株中存在差异分布。结论:布鲁菌在进化过程中分别获得或失去了不同的基因区段,从而适应不同的宿主环境。     

基因芯片在研究病毒感染宿主基因表达谱中的应用

人类基因组计划提供的海量基因信息以及功能基因组学理论和技术的出现,为研究病毒与宿主相互作用提供了难得的历史机遇。病毒作为一种严格的细胞内寄生物,感染宿主后会引起宿主细胞形态和功能的改变。这些变化主要由于病毒感染导致宿主细胞基因表达变化所引起。通过基因芯片技术研究病毒感染宿主的基因表达谱变化,可以发现病毒感染宿主细胞在分子水平上的应答,从而为病毒性疾病的预防、诊断和临床治疗提供新的策略。     

人类肠道菌群与疾病关系的元基因组学研究进展

人体的生理健康除受自身基因的调控外,还受到肠道菌群的影响。人体肠道内的细菌有1 000～1 150种,其中160种为优势菌种,存在不同类型的生态学相互作用。肠道细菌的300多万个基因被视为人类的"第二基因组",在正常人体健康状态下,肠道微生物种群处于平衡状态,而在宿主患病期,菌群失调或紊乱。采用元基因组学研究能在更高更复杂层次上揭示肠道菌群之间的生命运动规律。本文系统综述了元基因组学对肠道菌群与肥胖、糖尿病、炎症性肠病等疾病之间关系的研究进展。     

病原体毒力的进化

病原体毒力的进化是进化生物学和传染病预防控制中的重要课题。最具有进化优势的病原体应该是能够最大限度传播自身,对宿主造成的危害越小,越有利于病原体的长期传播。但根据“交易模型”,病原体在具有传播能力的同时,不可避免地造成宿主适应性的降低。由这一模型预测的病原体毒力进化,会在传播率最大和对宿主影响最小之间取得平衡,以便病原体的基本繁殖率最大化。本文介绍了近年来对这一模型的研究结果、其可能的使用意义和存在的争议,以及进一步完善模型的必要性．     

Experimental evidence of genome‐wide impact of ecological selection during early stages of speciation‐with‐gene‐flow

Theory predicts that speciation‐with‐gene‐flow is more likely when the consequences of selection for population divergence transitions from mainly direct effects of selection acting on individual genes to a collective property of all selected genes in the genome. Thus, understanding the direct impacts of ecologically based selection, as well as the indirect effects due to correlations among loci, is critical to understanding speciation. Here, we measure the genome‐wide impacts of host‐associated selection between hawthorn and apple host races of Rhagoletis pomonella (Diptera: Tephritidae), a model for contemporary speciation‐with‐gene‐flow. Allele frequency shifts of 32 455 SNPs induced in a selection experiment based on host phenology were genome wide and highly concordant with genetic divergence between co‐occurring apple and hawthorn flies in nature. This striking genome‐wide similarity between experimental and natural populations of R. pomonella underscores the importance of ecological selection at early stages of divergence and calls for further integration of studies of eco‐evolutionary dynamics and genome divergence.     

Lousy grouse: Comparing evolutionary patterns in Alaska galliform lice to understand host evolution and host–parasite interactions

Understanding both sides of host–parasite relationships can provide more complete insights into host and parasite biology in natural systems. For example, phylogenetic and population genetic comparisons between a group of hosts and their closely associated parasites can reveal patterns of host dispersal, interspecies interactions, and population structure that might not be evident from host data alone. These comparisons are also useful for understanding factors that drive host–parasite coevolutionary patterns (e.g., codivergence or host switching) over different periods of time. However, few studies have compared the evolutionary histories between multiple groups of parasites from the same group of hosts at a regional geographic scale. Here, we used genomic data to compare phylogenomic and population genomic patterns of Alaska ptarmigan and grouse species (Aves: Tetraoninae) and two genera of their associated feather lice: Lagopoecus and Goniodes. We used whole‐genome sequencing to obtain hundreds of genes and thousands of single‐nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for the lice and double‐digest restriction‐associated DNA sequences to obtain SNPs from Alaska populations of two species of ptarmigan. We found that both genera of lice have some codivergence with their galliform hosts, but these relationships are primarily characterized by host switching and phylogenetic incongruence. Population structure was also uncorrelated between the hosts and lice. These patterns suggest that grouse, and ptarmigan in particular, share habitats and have likely had historical and ongoing dispersal within Alaska. However, the two genera of lice also have sufficient dissimilarities in the relationships with their hosts to suggest there are other factors, such as differences in louse dispersal ability, that shape the evolutionary patterns with their hosts.     

Genomic Signatures of Coevolution between Nonmodel Mammals and Parasitic Roundworms

Antagonistic coevolution between host and parasite drives species evolution. However, most of the studies only focus on parasitism adaptation and do not explore the coevolution mechanisms from the perspective of both host and parasite. Here, through the de novo sequencing and assembly of the genomes of giant panda roundworm, red panda roundworm, and lion roundworm parasitic on tiger, we investigated the genomic mechanisms of coevolution between nonmodel mammals and their parasitic roundworms and those of roundworm parasitism in general. The genome-wide phylogeny revealed that these parasitic roundworms have not phylogenetically coevolved with their hosts. The CTSZ and prolyl 4-hydroxylase subunit beta (P4HB) immunoregulatory proteins played a central role in protein interaction between mammals and parasitic roundworms. The gene tree comparison identified that seven pairs of interactive proteins had consistent phylogenetic topology, suggesting their coevolution during host–parasite interaction. These coevolutionary proteins were particularly relevant to immune response. In addition, we found that the roundworms of both pandas exhibited higher proportions of metallopeptidase genes, and some positively selected genes were highly related to their larvae’s fast development. Our findings provide novel insights into the genetic mechanisms of coevolution between nonmodel mammals and parasites and offer the valuable genomic resources for scientific ascariasis prevention in both pandas.     

Genomewide signatures of selection in Epichloë reveal candidate genes for host specialization

Host specialization is a key process in ecological divergence and speciation of plant‐associated fungi. The underlying determinants of host specialization are generally poorly understood, especially in endophytes, which constitute one of the most abundant components of the plant microbiome. We addressed the genetic basis of host specialization in two sympatric subspecies of grass‐endophytic fungi from the Epichloë typhina complex: subsp. typhina and clarkii. The life cycle of these fungi entails unrestricted dispersal of gametes and sexual reproduction before infection of a new host, implying that the host imposes a selective barrier on viability of the progeny. We aimed to detect genes under divergent selection between subspecies, experiencing restricted gene flow due to adaptation to different hosts. Using pooled whole‐genome sequencing data, we combined F_ST and D_XY population statistics in genome scans and detected 57 outlier genes showing strong differentiation between the two subspecies. Genomewide analyses of nucleotide diversity (π), Tajima's D and dN/dS ratios indicated that these genes have evolved under positive selection. Genes encoding secreted proteins were enriched among the genes showing evidence of positive selection, suggesting that molecular plant–fungus interactions are strong drivers of endophyte divergence. We focused on five genes encoding secreted proteins, which were further sequenced in 28 additional isolates collected across Europe to assess genetic variation in a larger sample size. Signature of positive selection in these isolates and putative identification of pathogenic function supports our findings that these genes represent strong candidates for host specialization determinants in Epichloë endophytes. Our results highlight the role of secreted proteins as key determinants of host specialization.     

The mouse QTL map helps interpret human genome-wide association studies for HDL cholesterol

Genome-wide association (GWA) studies represent a powerful strategy for identifying susceptibility genes for complex diseases in human populations but results must be confirmed and replicated. Because of the close homology between mouse and human genomes, the mouse can be used to add evidence to genes suggested by human studies. We used the mouse quantitative trait loci (QTL) map to interpret results from a GWA study for genes associated with plasma HDL cholesterol levels. We first positioned single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from a human GWA study on the genomic map for mouse HDL QTL. We then used mouse bioinformatics, sequencing, and expression studies to add evidence for one well-known HDL gene (Abca1) and three newly identified genes (Galnt2, Wwox, and Cdh13), thus supporting the results of the human study. For GWA peaks that occur in human haplotype blocks with multiple genes, we examined the homologous regions in the mouse to prioritize the genes using expression, sequencing, and bioinformatics from the mouse model, showing that some genes were unlikely candidates and adding evidence for candidate genes Mvk and Mmab in one haplotype block and Fads1 and Fads2 in the second haplotype block. Our study highlights the value of mouse genetics for evaluating genes found in human GWA studies.     

An assessment of opportunities to dissect host genetic variation in resistance to infectious diseases in livestock

This paper reviews the evidence for host genetic variation in resistance to infectious diseases for a wide variety of diseases of economic importance in poultry, cattle, pig, sheep and Atlantic salmon. Further, it develops a method of ranking each disease in terms of its overall impact, and combines this ranking with published evidence for host genetic variation and information on the current state of genomic tools in each host species. The outcome is an overall ranking of the amenability of each disease to genomic studies that dissect host genetic variation in resistance. Six disease-based assessment criteria were defined: industry concern, economic impact, public concern, threat to food safety or zoonotic potential, impact on animal welfare and threat to international trade barriers. For each category, a subjective score was assigned to each disease according to the relative strength of evidence, impact, concern or threat posed by that particular disease, and the scores were summed across categories. Evidence for host genetic variation in resistance was determined from available published data, including breed comparison, heritability studies, quantitative trait loci (QTL) studies, evidence of candidate genes with significant effects, data on pathogen sequence and on host gene expression analyses. In total, 16 poultry diseases, 13 cattle diseases, nine pig diseases, 11 sheep diseases and three Atlantic salmon diseases were assessed. The top-ranking diseases or pathogens, i.e. those most amenable to studies dissecting host genetic variation, were Salmonella in poultry, bovine mastitis, Marek's disease and coccidiosis, both in poultry. The top-ranking diseases or pathogens in pigs, sheep and Atlantic salmon were Escherichia coli, mastitis and infectious pancreatic necrosis, respectively. These rankings summarise the current state of knowledge for each disease and broadly, although not entirely, reflect current international research efforts. They will alter as more information becomes available and as genome tools become more sophisticated for each species. It is suggested that this approach could be used to rank diseases from other perspectives as well, e.g. in terms of disease control strategies.     

Recent Evolutionary History of Tigers Highlights Contrasting Roles of Genetic Drift and Selection

Species conservation can be improved by knowledge of evolutionary and genetic history. Tigers are among the most charismatic of endangered species and garner significant conservation attention. However, their evolutionary history and genomic variation remain poorly known, especially for Indian tigers. With 70% of the world’s wild tigers living in India, such knowledge is critical. We re-sequenced 65 individual tiger genomes representing most extant subspecies with a specific focus on tigers from India. As suggested by earlier studies, we found strong genetic differentiation between the putative tiger subspecies. Despite high total genomic diversity in India, individual tigers host longer runs of homozygosity, potentially suggesting recent inbreeding or founding events, possibly due to small and fragmented protected areas. We suggest the impacts of ongoing connectivity loss on inbreeding and persistence of Indian tigers be closely monitored. Surprisingly, demographic models suggest recent divergence (within the last 20,000 years) between subspecies and strong population bottlenecks. Amur tiger genomes revealed the strongest signals of selection related to metabolic adaptation to cold, whereas Sumatran tigers show evidence of weak selection for genes involved in body size regulation. We recommend detailed investigation of local adaptation in Amur and Sumatran tigers prior to initiating genetic rescue.     

Finding candidate genes under positive selection in Non‐model species: examples of genes involved in host specialization in pathogens

Numerous genes in diverse organisms have been shown to be under positive selection, especially genes involved in reproduction, adaptation to contrasting environments, hybrid inviability, and host‐pathogen interactions. Looking for genes under positive selection in pathogens has been a priority in efforts to investigate coevolution dynamics and to develop vaccines or drugs. To elucidate the functions involved in host specialization, here we aimed at identifying candidate sequences that could have evolved under positive selection among closely related pathogens specialized on different hosts. For this goal, we sequenced c. 17 000–32 000 ESTs from each of four Microbotryum species, which are fungal pathogens responsible for anther smut disease on host plants in the Caryophyllaceae. Forty‐two of the 372 predicted orthologous genes showed significant signal of positive selection, which represents a good number of candidate genes for further investigation. Sequencing 16 of these genes in 9 additional Microbotryum species confirmed that they have indeed been rapidly evolving in the pathogen species specialized on different hosts. The genes showing significant signals of positive selection were putatively involved in nutrient uptake from the host, secondary metabolite synthesis and secretion, respiration under stressful conditions and stress response, hyphal growth and differentiation, and regulation of expression by other genes. Many of these genes had transmembrane domains and may therefore also be involved in pathogen recognition by the host. Our approach thus revealed fruitful and should be feasible for many non‐model organisms for which candidate genes for diversifying selection are needed.