Climate changes and virgin vegetation dynamics in the Northern Caspian lowland

A wavy trend toward increasing vegetation biomass in desert, semidesert, and steppe communities growing on solonetzic soils was discovered in the Northern Caspian region over a 60-year observation period (1952–2013). The trend is caused by warming during winter months (due to redistribution of soil moisture) and the improvement of hydrothermal conditions in spring months (the period of most active plant vegetation).     

Sand,swamp and weed vegetation at the estuary of the Rubin River (Palestine)

Zusammenfassung Der vorliegende Artikel gibt in grossen Zügen die Vegetation eines Platzes von einigen Quadratkilometern Ausdehnung nahe der Mittelmeerküste zwischen Jaffa und Askalon, wo bis vor kurzem ein mit Tamarisken und Schilfrohr bestandener Sumpf und eine aus leicht zerfallendem Kalksandstein aufgebaute Höhe noch ursprüngliche Pflanzengesellschaften getragen haben, während in einer Uebergangszone Ackerkultur auf sandigem Boden getrieben worden ist. Die ursprüngliche Vegetation ist durch Pflugkultur und Drainage des schweren Bodens, Aufforstung und bauliche Anlagen auf der Höhe zwecks Anlage einer Versuchsfarm verdrängt worden.Auf den Abhängen der Höhe fanden sich kniehohe Bestände von Perennen, in denen Andropogon hirtus und Ononis stenophylla vorherrschten. Die sandige Uebergangszone trug eine Assoziation, die von Eig als Ormenetum mixtae beschrieben worden ist und die er als segetale Variante seines (auf roten Sandböden der Küstenebene Palästinas sehr verbreiteten) Eragrostetum bipinnatae auffasste.Auf dem schwarzen, alluvialen Boden des Sumpfgebietes wurden noch Reste eines Phragmitetum typhetosum festgestellt, an anderer Stelle djungelartig dichte Phragmitesbestände ohne Begleitart in der Oberschicht des Röhrichts, aber mit einer Krautschicht, in der Alopecurus myosuroides vorherrschte. Die mit sinkendem Grundwasserspiegel auftretenden Veränderungen der ursprünglichen Vegetation werden skizziert. Nahe dem Grundwasser breitet sich Panicum repens in dichten Rasen aus. Höher über dem Grund-wasser findet man Bestände von Rubus sanctus mit Festuca arundinacea und Stachys viticina vergesellschaftet. Diesen nahe verwandt sind Altiherbosa, in denen Arten von Rumex, Lotus, Ononis, Mentha, Verbena, Inula, Pulicaria etc. ausser den genannten auftreten. Mehr segetalen Charakter haben Bestände von Ammi Visnaga und Cichorium pumilum, die nach mehrmaligem Pflügen beobachtet wurden, sowie die Prosopis Stephaniana-Cynara syriaca-Assoziation Eigs. Eine exakte Analyse der Abhängigkeit dieser artenreichen Pflanzenbestände vom Grundwasser kann leider nicht gegeben werden.Es wird an einigen Beispielen gezeigt, wie die besprochenen Folge-Gesellschaften schliesslich mit fortschreitender landwirtschaftlicher Nutzung von der auf schweren Böden der Küstenebene üblichen Unkrautvegetation der bewässerten Kulturen abgelöst werden.Auf leicht salzigen Böden fand sich ein Bestand von Juncus acutus-Plantago crassifolia, während Spergularia media-Hordeum marinum f. microstachys stärkeren Salzgehalt auf begrenzten Stellen mit weissem Boden anzuzeigen schien.Die Aufführung von ca. 250 Arten beansprucht ein gewisses pflanzengeographisches Interesse, da (1) über die Vegetation der Küstenregion zwischen Jaffa und Askalon recht wenig Angaben in der Literatur vorliegen und (2) weiter südlich permanente Sümpfe sich wegen des schnell trockener werdenden Klimas nicht mehr ausbilden können.

---

Résumé L'article présent décrit la végétation d'un terrain s'étendant sur quelques kilométres carrés non loin du littoral méditerranéen entre Jaffa et Askalon. Tout récemment, un marais couvert de tamaris et de roseaux, et une hauteur composée d'un grès calcaire friable, y présentaient encore des groupements vegetaux primitifs, tandis que dans une zone intermédiaire on poussait la charrue sur un sol sablonneux. La végétation primitive a été détruite ou supplantée par le drainage du sol argileux, par l'afforestation, les constructions d'une ferme d'essais.Sur la pente de la colline se-trouvalent des groupes d'herbes perennantes parmi lesquelles prédominaient Andropogon hirtus et Ononis stenophylla. La zöne de transition sablonneuse portait une association qu' Eig a décrite comme Ormenetum mixtae. Il tenait cette association pour une variante ségétale de son Eragrostetum bipinnatae qui se trouve fort répandu sur les terrains sablonneux rouges de la plaine littorale palestinienne.Sur le sol noir, alluvial du terrain marécageux on constatait encore les restes d'un Phragmitetum typhetosum. En un autre endroit poussaient drus comme en pleine jungle des groupes de Phragmites sans espèces satellites dans la strate supérieure. Par contre on y trouvait une strate herbacée ou dominait Alopecurus myosuroides. Les modifications de la végétation primitive qui apparaissent avec l'abaissement de la nappe phréatique sont esquissés. Peu au dessus du fond de la nappe s'étend en touffes épaisses Panicum repens. Plus haut on trouve des peuplements de Rubus sanctus mêlés à Festuca arundinacea et Stachys viticina. Etroitement apparentés à ceux-là nous trouvons des Altiherbosa dans lesquels apparaissent en dehors de celles déjà mentionnèes des espèces de Rumex, Lotus, Mentha, Verbena, Inula, Pulicaria, etc.Un caractère plus ségétal portent les groupements d' Ammi Visnaga et et Cichorium pumilum qui furent constatés après un labourage répété, ainsi que l'association à Prosopis Stephaniana-Cynara syriaca d'Eig. Il est malheureusement impossible de donner une analyse exacte de la dépendance de la nappe d'eau de ces groupements végétaux si riches en espèces.Quelques exemples choisis montrent comment ces stades successifs de la dégradation de la végétation primitive sont définitivement supplantés par une végétation de mauvaises herbes qu'on trouve ordinairement sur les terrains lourds du littoral, dans les champs de labour ainsi que parmi les cultures irriguées.Sur des terres légèrement salines, on rencontre un groupement végétal à Juncus acutus-Plantago crassifolia tandis que Spergularia media et Hordeum marinum f. brachystachys semblent indiquer une teneur en sel élevée en des endroits limités à sol blanchâtre.L'énumération de quelques 250 espèces présente un certain intérêt phytogéographique, car (1°) la littérature offre bien peu de données exactes sur la flore du littoral entre Jaffa et Askalon; et (2°) plus loin vers le Sud le climat qui se dessèche rapidement ne permet plus la formation de marécages permanents.

     

Climate and vegetation in China III water balance and distribution of vegetation

Distributions of 29 vegetation types in China as a function of climatic humidity or aridity were analysed using Thornthwaite's system, by employing meteorological records from 671 stations in China. The annual potential evapotranspiration and the humidity/aridity indices were calculated for every station, and distribution maps of water deficiency, water surplus and moisture index (Im) were constructed. The Im map showed that arid areas (Im<0) occupied about 56% of the country. The effect of the difference in soil water storage capacity on Thornthwaite's indices was examined, and Im values were found to differ little, although some differences were observed in actual annual evapotranspiration, water deficiency and water surplus values. Correlations between Im values and distributions of 29 vegetation types, identified from a vegetation map with a scale of 1/4000000, were investigated. The distributions of desert, steppe, woodland, deciduous forest and evergreen forest corresponded to Im values of below −40, −40–−20, −20-0, 0–60 and over 60, respectively. In addition, climatic factors delimiting the northern distribution of evergreen broadleaf forest were investigated, and it was clarified that the northern limit was restricted by combined hydrothermal conditions, and not by the low temperature in winter.     

Fire and fire-adapted vegetation promoted C4 expansion in the late Miocene

Large proportions of the Earth's land surface are covered by biomes dominated by C(4) grasses. These C(4)-dominated biomes originated during the late Miocene, 3-8 million years ago (Ma), but there is evidence that C(4) grasses evolved some 20 Ma earlier during the early Miocene/Oligocene. Explanations for this lag between evolution and expansion invoke changes in atmospheric CO(2), seasonality of climate and fire. However, there is still no consensus about which of these factors triggered C(4) grassland expansion. We use a vegetation model, the adaptive dynamic global vegetation model (aDGVM), to test how CO(2), temperature, precipitation, fire and the tolerance of vegetation to fire influence C(4) grassland expansion. Simulations are forced with late Miocene climates generated with the Hadley Centre coupled ocean-atmosphere-vegetation general circulation model. We show that physiological differences between the C(3) and C(4) photosynthetic pathways cannot explain C(4) grass invasion into forests, but that fire is a crucial driver. Fire-promoting plant traits serve to expand the climate space in which C(4)-dominated biomes can persist. We propose that three mechanisms were involved in C(4) expansion: the physiological advantage of C(4) grasses under low atmospheric CO(2) allowed them to invade C(3) grasslands; fire allowed grasses to invade forests; and the evolution of fire-resistant savanna trees expanded the climate space that savannas can invade.     

Spatial patterns and dynamics of woody vegetation in an arid savanna

The spatial distribution of woody plants was studied in an arid savanna in Botswana. The study included stands of mixed species and sizes as well as monospecific even-sized stands of different size classes of the tree Acacia erioloba and the shrub Acacia mellifera. In the case of A. mellifera both dense stands on overgrazed land and more open stands were included. The analysis used all plant-to-plant distances, and individuals were represented with a realistic canopy extension. The mixed stands showed aggregated distribution of individuals, mainly caused by strong clumping of small shrubs. In A. erioloba saplings were aggregated, small trees were randomly or regularly distributed and large trees were randomly spaced. In open stands of A. mellifera aggregation increased with size of the shrubs, while in dense stands with overgrazing aggregation decreased with increasing size. The different patterns are discussed in relation to the relative importance of inter- and intraspecific competition for water and of disturbance by fire as regulatory mechanisms for total amount and spatial distribution of woody plants in this savanna.     

陕北气候变化与生态植被变迁

分析了128万年以来陕北气候变化及其生态植被变迁。结果表明,陕北黄土高原气候经历了多次冷、暖、干、湿的周期变化。陕北植被变迁在地质时期以及历史时期早期,主要由气候条件所控制,植被类型随气候的冷暖干湿变化而变迁。随着人类活动的加剧,气候条件不再是影响植被变迁的唯一因素,人类活动对植被的影响愈来愈明显。明清时期,气候冷干,旱灾频繁．陕北生态环境脆弱,大规模垦殖和滥烧使自然植被迅速减少,陕北自然植被遭到毁灭性破坏。20世纪50年代,陕北逐步开始生态环境治理,在对生态环境治理的同时,又对部分地区自然植被进行破坏。20世纪80年代以后,生态环境总体上趋于好转。     

Early Miocene vegetation and climate in Weichang District, North China

The Early Miocene palynological assemblage of Guangfayong (GFY) in the Weichang District, Hebei Province, China has been studied. It consists of 48 palynomorphs belonging to 39 families, with pollen and spores belonging to angiosperms (28.9%), gymnosperms (59.9%), ferns (10.8%) and other elements (0.5%). Based on the palynological assemblages of GFY and Wuluogong (WLG), another locality in the Weichang District, the Early Miocene vegetation of the Weichang District, was characterized by a mixed temperate forest of conifers (e.g. Pinus, Picea, Tsuga) and broad-leaved trees (e.g. Betula, Alnus), with some subtropical plants (e.g. Carya). The palaeoclimatic parameters of Guangfayong were obtained by applying the Coexistence Approach: the mean annual temperature from 7.8 to 14.9 °C, the difference of temperature between the coldest and warmest months from 14.2 to 23 °C, the mean temperature of the coldest month from − 3 to 5.9 °C, the mean temperature of the warmest month from 23.5 to 25.4 °C, the mean annual precipitation from 658.7 to 1389.4 mm, the minimum monthly precipitation from 7.6 to 16.4 mm, and the maximum monthly precipitation from 161.4 to 205.9 mm. It suggests a warm temperate to subtropical climate in Weichang District, similar to that of present-day Zhaojue City, Sichuan Province in the Yangtze River Valley. When the palaeoclimatic parameters were compared with those of Middle Miocene Shanwang Basin, it would seem that the temperature and precipitation were a little higher in the Middle Miocene of eastern China. However, if the latitudinal temperature gradient at that time is considered, the median temperature values of GFY of Early Miocene and Shanwang of Mid-Miocene were similar.     

Holocene climate,fire and vegetation dynamics at the treeline in the Northwestern Swiss Alps

Treelines are expected to rise to higher elevations with climate warming; the rate and extent however are still largely unknown. Here we present the first multi-proxy palaeoecological study from the treeline in the Northwestern Swiss Alps that covers the entire Holocene. We reconstructed climate, fire and vegetation dynamics at Iffigsee, an alpine lake at 2,065 m a.s.l., by using seismic sedimentary surveys, loss on ignition, visible spectrum reflectance spectroscopy, pollen, spore, macrofossil and charcoal analyses. Afforestation with Larix decidua and tree Betula (probably B. pendula) started at ~9,800 cal. b.p., more than 1,000 years later than at similar elevations in the Central and Southern Alps, indicating cooler temperatures and/or a high seasonality. Highest biomass production and forest position of ~2,100–2,300 m a.s.l. are inferred during the Holocene Thermal Maximum from 7,000 to 5,000 cal. b.p. With the onset of pastoralism and transhumance at 6,800–6,500 cal. b.p., human impact became an important factor in the vegetation dynamics at Iffigsee. This early evidence of pastoralism is documented by the presence of grazing indicators (pollen, spores), as well as a wealth of archaeological finds at the nearby mountain pass of Schnidejoch. Human and fire impact during the Neolithic and Bronze Ages led to the establishment of pastures and facilitated the expansion of Picea abies and Alnus viridis. We expect that in mountain areas with land abandonment, the treeline will react quickly to future climate warming by shifting to higher elevations, causing drastic changes in species distribution and composition as well as severe biodiversity losses.     

Modelling Pb and Cd dynamics in the Seine estuary

The Seine estuary (France) is currently one of the world’s most contaminated estuaries, due in particular to its high cadmium and lead content. Proper understanding of contaminant transfer, transformation and retention mechanisms throughout the estuary and up to the adjacent marine zone require a range of studies involving data collections, experiments, and modeling tool. A multivariable transport model (SiAM-3D) was used to simulate dissolved and particulate transport and it is applied to several calculation grids; a speciation model (MOCO) was used to select key species and obtain a schematic system representation. The coupled model for Cd and Pb was compared with field measurements. The complementary character of various tools (model applied to annual time scale, in situ measurements and experiments) allowed to explore and quantify various hypotheses on the high dissolved cadmium concentrations observed during low river flow. The target is to achieve a compromise between acceptable computing times and adequate result accuracy. Although particle and contaminant behaviour is globally well-reproduced by the coarse grid, calculation errors relating to bayward fluxes and stocks deposited inside the estuary were highlighted after comparison with the fine grid.     

Invasion models of vegetation dynamics

Since communities change as a result of their successful invasion by new species it seems logical to attempt to predict future vegetation change by focussing on the invasion process. Several such invasion models are reviewed, and one particular model, based on dynamic game theory is developed further. This model can be used as an alternative to linear (e.g. Markov chain) models for the prediction of vegetation dynamics, and also to compare invasive abilities of species and resistance to invasion of communities. The main advantage of the model lies in the fact that it operates at a sufficiently high level of integration to allow for model calibration (in spite of the large number of underlying processes), and yet has an obvious population biological interpretation (in terms of the success of invading populations). The model can be calibrated using either time course data or experimental data, and it may be helpful in understanding what determines the fate of an invading population. It is used here to analyze two published vegetation dynamics data sets.This work was financially supported by operating grant A8115 from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.     

Climate drives the meningitis epidemics onset in west Africa

Background

Every year West African countries within the Sahelo-Sudanian band are afflicted with major meningococcal meningitis (MCM) disease outbreaks, which affect up to 200,000 people, mainly young children, in one of the world''s poorest regions. The timing of the epidemic year, which starts in February and ends in late May, and the spatial distribution of disease cases throughout the “Meningitis Belt” strongly indicate a close linkage between the life cycle of the causative agent of MCM and climate variability. However, mechanisms responsible for the observed patterns are still not clearly identified.

Methods and Findings

By comparing the information on cases and deaths of MCM from World Health Organization weekly reports with atmospheric datasets, we quantified the relationship between the seasonal occurrence of MCM in Mali, a West African country, and large-scale atmospheric circulation. Regional atmospheric indexes based on surface wind speed show a clear link between population dynamics of the disease and climate: the onset of epidemics and the winter maximum defined by the atmospheric index share the same mean week (sixth week of the year; standard deviation, 2 wk) and are highly correlated.

Conclusions

This study is the first that provides a clear, quantitative demonstration of the connections that exist between MCM epidemics and regional climate variability in Africa. Moreover, this statistically robust explanation of the MCM dynamics enables the development of an Early Warning Index for meningitis epidemic onset in West Africa. The development of such an index will undoubtedly help nationwide and international public health institutions and policy makers to better control MCM disease within the so-called westward–eastward pan-African Meningitis Belt.     

Population dynamics of heterotrophic bacterial communities associated withFucus vesiculosus andUlva rigida in an estuary

The heterotrophic bacterial communities associated with the seaweedsFucus vesiculosus andUlva rigida in an estuary were studied. Changes in these communities were monitored by monthly sampling during the year. The isolated strains were identified at the genus level and grouped into 14 clusters by their similarities. Seasonal changes in genera and clusters as well as variations in diversity were related to primary production periods and fluctuation of salinity levels. TheFlavobacterium group was the major inhabitant of algal surfaces, being dominant after the primary production peaks occurred in spring and autumn. The decrease of dissolved organic matter after these peaks yielded an increase in diversity. Important alterations in these bacterial communities were observed during a period of large decrease in the salinity of estuarine water. In general, the epiphytic communities of both seaweeds were similar in their composition and dynamics, but they were very different from the surrounding water communities.     

Cattle exclosure and vegetation dynamics in an ancient,Irish wet oakwood

The effects of a 10-year period of cattle exclosure on the ground flora and tree regeneration of an Irish ancient lowland wet oakwood (Corylo-Fraxinetum deschampsietosum) community are assessed. The approach was to record changes in a quadrat sample located in a National Nature Reserve and to model change by multivariate statistical analysis using Principal Components Analysis and Redundancy Analysis ordination. Exclosure gave significant increases in the abundance of regenerating ash Fraxinus excelsior and holly Ilex aquifolium. Non-native tree species establishment also occurred. In the ground flora, there were significant decreases in the abundance of ruderal species and grasses and significant increases in graze-resistant and graze-sensitive species usually restricted to broadleaf woodland habitats. Changes were similar under low and high canopy sites, but greater under a high canopy. In Irish lowland wet oakwood, managed historically to favour oak and currently grazed by cattle, exclosure promotes the succession of ash to the canopy and holly to the understorey. With time, this is likely to lead to a shift from oak dominance. In a conservation context this, together with an increased risk of non-native tree species establishment, can be ecologically damaging, particularly in small sites without natural dynamics, as is the case in the hedged agricultural landscapes of western Europe. We conclude that site-based conservation objectives should be prioritised when implementing generic, landscape-scale management strategies, such as rotational exclosure.     

Biomass dynamics of grassland vegetation in Kenya

Seasonal changes in plant biomass in the herb layer were measured at Nairobi National Park and Masai Mara Game Reserve in Kenya from January 1980 to February 1981. Plant biomass fluctuated in response to seasonal rainfall, and live biomass was correlated with rainfall and soil moisture at both locations. Peak values for live biomass at Nairobi National Park occurred at the end of the long rains during the June 1980 sample and ranged from 138 to 197gm^-2. Minimum values for live biomass at Nairobi occurred during a dry season in February 1981 and ranged from 8 to 39 g m^-2. The standing dead and litter compartments were larger than the live compartment during every sample period at Nairobi National Park, and together often comprised more than 80% of the total above-ground biomass. Probably as a result of higher rainfall, peak values for live biomass at Masai Mara Game Reserve were higher than those at Nairobi. Again, peak biomass occurred during June following the long rains, and ranged from 218 to 294 gm^-2. Minimum values for live biomass occurred during February 1981, and ranged from 10 to 48 g m^-2. Standing dead and litter compartments were much smaller than at Nairobi National Park, reflecting more intense herbivore pressure and a greater frequency of fires at Masai Mara compared with that at Nairobi National Park.     

Climate and vegetation in China II. Distribution of main vegetation types and thermal climate

The authors examined relationships between Kira's warmth index (WI) and four other important thermal indices: the sums of daily mean temperatures above 5°C and 10°C, Thornthwaite's potential evapotranspiration (PE) and Holdridge's annual biotemperature. The thermal records of 671 meteorological stations evenly located all over China were used to make these comparisons. Close correlations were found within the four relationships, and accordingly WI was used to analyse the thermal distributions of the main vegetation types. Vegetation types around the 671 stations were read from a vegetation map with a scale of 1/4000000. Vegetation types at 269 stations corresponded to the natural or seminatural vegetation, and 29 vegetation types were distinguished by arranging the 269 data into the same or similar types. The geographical distribution of these 29 types and the corresponding main climatic features were described. The relations between WI and distribution of these vegetation types were discussed in detail. As a result, WI values (°C month) corresponding to the vegetation zones could be summarized as follows: (1) arctic or alpine vegetation zone: 0–15; (2) boreal or subalpine vegetation zone: 15-(50–55); (3) cool-temperate vegetation zone: (50–55)–(80–90); (4) warm-temperate vegetation zone: (80–90)–(170–180). These values almost coincided with Kira's values. Chinese postgraduate student in Japan sent by the Chinese Government.     

Holocene vegetation,fire and land use dynamics at Lake Svityaz,an agriculturally marginal site in northwestern Ukraine

Vegetation History and Archaeobotany - Observing natural vegetation dynamics over the entire Holocene is difficult in Central Europe, due to pervasive and increasing human disturbance since the...     

Bacterial and phytoplankton dynamics in a sub-tropical estuary

Heterotrophic bacterial and phytoplankton biomass, production, specific growth rates and growth efficiencies were studied in July 2001 and January 2002 during both spring and neap tides, along a tidal cycle, at three sites in a subtropical estuary. Major freshwater inputs located in the Northern region led to differences in both phytoplankton and bacterioplankton biomass and activity along the estuary. While in the Northern region phytoplankton is light-limited, with mean phytoplankton production (PP) between 1.1 and 1.9 μg C l⁻¹ h⁻¹ and mean specific growth rates (PSG) between 0.14 and 0.16 d⁻¹, the Southern region registered values as high as 24.7 μg C l⁻¹ h⁻¹ for PP and 2.45 d⁻¹ (mean PP between 3.4 and 7.3 μg C l⁻¹ h⁻¹; mean PSG between 0.28 and 0.57 d⁻¹). On the other hand, maximum bacterial production (BP: 63.8 μg C l⁻¹ h⁻¹) and specific growth rate (BSG: 32.26 d⁻¹) were observed in the Northern region (mean BP between 3.4 and 12.8 μg C l⁻¹ h⁻¹; mean BSG between 1.98 and 6.67 day⁻¹). These bacterial activity rates are among the highest recorded rates in estuarine and coastal waters, indicating that this system can be highly heterotrophic, due to high loads of allochthonous carbon (mainly derived from mangrove forest). Our results also showed that, despite that BP rates usually exceeded PP, in the Southern region BP may be partially supported (∼45%) by PP, since a significant regression was observed between BP and PP (r = 0.455, P < 0.001). Handling editor: P. Viaroli