神经元微管蛋白的研究进展

神经元特殊形态的形成及维持主要依赖于神经元细胞骨架中微管的装配,在此过程中,涉及到微管的组成及其动力学性质,而最终形成了稳定的微管结构,在神经元中,这一结构为沿着神经突运输物质提供了基础。本文将主要在神经元微管的结构与功能,神经元微管蛋白异构基因的表达及其翻译后加工形式等方面的研究进展加以综述。     

Circadian changes in Drosophila motor terminals

In Drosophila melanogaster, as in most other higher organisms, a circadian clock controls the rhythmic distribution of rest/sleep and locomotor activity. Here we report that the morphology of Drosophila flight neuromuscular terminals changes between day and night, with a rhythm in synaptic bouton size that continues in constant darkness, but is abolished during aging. Furthermore, arrhythmic mutations in the clock genes timeless and period also disrupt this circadian rhythm. Finally, these clock mutants also have an opposing effect on the nonrhythmic phenotype of neuronal branching, with tim mutants showing a dramatic hyperbranching morphology and per mutants having fewer branches than wild-type flies. These unexpected results reveal further circadian as well as nonclock related pleiotropic effects for these classic behavioral mutants.     

Characterization of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors on intact neuroblastoma × glioma NG108-15 cell upon induced differentiation

Summary Studies have established that major increases in muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAchR) binding in the brain appear to coincide with synaptogenesis. The neuroblastoma × glioma hybrid NG108-15 cell line has been demonstrated to possess numerous functional characteristics of intact neurons, including synapse formation with myotubes. The present study examines and characterizes the mAchR on the hybrid NG108-15 cells during differentiation, induced by 1 mM dBcAMP. Specific binding of [³H]-QNB for differentiated cells increases gradually to a final level of 130% (P < 0.05) over the control undifferentiated cells during the first 24 hr of incubation. Further, this increase of receptor sites appears to correlate proportionately to the degree of neurite extension of the differentiating cells. The dissociation rate constant at equilibrium (K_d) and maximum binding capacity (B_max) have been determined to be 5.6 nM and 920 fmol/10⁶ cells, respectively, for differentiated cells, and 4.4 nM and 400 fmol/10⁶ cells, respectively, for undifferentiated cells. Computer analyses of the data obtained from saturation experiments reveal a single class of binding sites for [³H]-QNB on both differentiated and undifferentiated cells. The Hill plot analysis of the QNB-binding indicates a Hill coefficient (nH) of 1.0 and 0.91 for differentiated and undifferentiated cells, respectively, suggesting the unity of receptor sites with no co-operativity. Our results depict that increases of mAchRs on intact cells correlate with the degree of cellular differentiation.     

Axon guidance and neuronal migration research in China

Proper migration of neuronal somas and axonal growth cones to designated locations in the developing brain is essential for the assembly of functional neuronal circuits.Rapid progress in research of axon guidance and neuronal migration has been made in the last twenty years.Chinese researchers began their exploration in this field ten years ago and have made significant contributions in clarifying the signal transduction of axon guidance and neuronal migration.Several unique experimental approaches,includin...     

A role of local signalling in the establishment and maintenance of the asymmetrical architecture of a neuron

Significant progress has been made in the identification of intrinsic and extrinsic factors involved in the development of nervous system. It is remarkable that the establishment and maintenance of the asymmetrical architecture of a neuron is coordinated by a limited repertoire of signalling machineries. However, the details of signalling mechanisms responsible for creating specificity and diversity required for proper development of the nervous system remain largely to be investigated. An emerging body of evidence suggests that specificity and diversity can be achieved by differential regulation of signalling components at distinct subcellular localizations. Many aspects of neuronal polarization and morphogenesis are attributed to localized signalling. Further diversity and specificity of receptor signalling can be achieved by the regulation of molecules outside the cell. Recent evidence suggests that extracellular matrix molecules are essential extrinsic cues that function to foster the growth of neurons. Therefore, it is important to understand where the signalling machineries are activated and how they are combined with other factors in order to understand the molecular mechanism underlying neuronal development.     

New observations on the development of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone system in the mouse

In ongoing efforts to study the ontogeny of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons, we serendipitously observed that increasing times of incubation in antibodies enhanced signal detection. Here, we describe significant differences in the early migration pattern, population dynamics, and growth cone morphology from published reports. The first immunoreactive GnRH cells were detected in the mouse at E10.75 (7.6 ± 2.8 cells; morning after mating = E0.5), prior to the closure of the olfactory placode. Although half of these cells were in the medial wall of the olfactory pit, the other half had already initiated their migration, and approximately one quarter had reached the telencephalic vesicle. Although the migratory pattern of the GnRH cells after E11.00 was identical to that described previously, these earliest migrating cells traveled singly rather than in cords, with some reaching the presumptive preoptic area (posterior to the ganglionic eminence) by E11.75. The number of GnRH cells increased significantly (p < 0.05) to 777 ± 183 at E11.75 and peaked at 1949.6 ± 161.6 (p < 0.05) at E12.75. The adult population was approximately 800 cells distributed between the central nervous system (CNS) and the nasal region. Hence, the population of GnRH neurons during early development is much larger than previously appreciated; mechanisms for its decline are discussed. Neuritic extensions on the earliest GnRH neurons are short (30–50 μm) and blunt and may represent the leading edge of the moving cell. By E12.75, GnRH axons in the CNS had a ribboned or beaded morphology and increasingly more complex growth cones were noted from this time until the day of birth. The most complex growth cones were associated with apparent choice points along the axons' trajectory. By E13.75, GnRH axons were seen at the presumptive median eminence in all animals, and it was at this stage that the axons began to branch profusely. Branching, as well as the presence of growth cones, continued postnatally. These results provide further insights into the pathfinding mechanisms of GnRH cells and axons. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 33: 983–998, 1997     

Rab‐mediated trafficking role in neurite formation

Neuronal cells are characterized by the presence of two confined domains, which are different in their cellular properties, biochemical functions and molecular identity. The generation of asymmetric domains in neurons should logically require specialized membrane trafficking to both promote neurite outgrowth and differential distribution of components. Members of the Rab family of small GTPases are key regulators of membrane trafficking involved in transport, tethering and docking of vesicles through their effectors. RabGTPases activity is coupled to the activity of guanine nucleotide exchange factors or GEFs, and GTPase‐activating proteins known as GAPs. Since the overall spatiotemporal distribution of GEFs, GAPs and Rabs governs trafficking through the secretory and endocytic pathways, affecting exocytosis, endocytosis and endosome recycling, it is likely that RabGTPases could have a major role in neurite outgrowth, elongation and polarization. In this review we summarize the evidence linking the functions of several RabGTPases to axonal and dendritic development in primary neurons, as well as neurite formation in neuronal cell lines. We focused on the role of RabGTPases from the trans‐Golgi network, early/late and recycling endosomes, as well as the function of some Rab effectors in neuritogenesis. Finally, we also discuss the participation of the ADP‐ribosylation factor 6, a member of the ArfGTPase family, in neurite formation since it seems to have an important cross‐talk with RabGTPases.

     

神经元网络动力学的统计物理方法

本文回顾了利用统计物理的方法研究神经元网络动力学的数学降维描述.以一个全兴奋性的“整合-发放”神经元网络为出发点,导出了描写神经元群体活动的概率分布函数的(2+1)-维对流-扩散方程.在没有引入任何新参数的情况下,讨论了如何利用moment closure scheme得到(1+1)-维的动力学方程.我们将此方程的预测...     

Birth,survival and differentiation of neurons in an adult crustacean brain

Life‐long neurogenesis is a characteristic feature of many vertebrate and invertebrate species. In decapod crustaceans, new neurons are added throughout life to two cell clusters containing local (cluster 9) and projection (cluster 10) interneurons in the olfactory pathway. Adult‐born neurons in clusters 9 and 10 in crayfish have the anatomical properties and chemistry of mature neurons by 6 months after birth. Here we use 5‐bromo‐2′‐deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation to pulse label mitotically active cells in these cell clusters, followed by a survival time of up to 8 months, during which crayfish (Cherax destructor) were sacrificed at intervals and the numbers of BrdU‐labeled cells quantified. We find a decrease in the numbers of BrdU‐labeled cells in cell cluster 10 between the first and second weeks following BrdU exposure, suggesting a period of cell death shortly after proliferation. Additional delayed cell divisions in both cell clusters are indicated by increases in labeled cells long after the BrdU clearing time. The differentiation time of these cells into neurons was defined by detection of the first immunoreactivity for the transmitter SIFamide in cluster 10 BrdU‐labeled cells, which begins at 4 weeks after BrdU labeling; the numbers of SIFamide‐labeled cells continues to increase over the following month. Experiments testing whether proliferation and survival of Cluster 10 cells are influenced by locomotor activity provided no evidence of a correlation between activity levels and cell proliferation, but suggest a strong influence of locomotor activity on cell survival. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 74: 602–615, 2014     

The MAP1B case: An old MAP that is new again

The functions of microtubule‐associated protein 1B (MAP1B) have historically been linked to the development of the nervous system, based on its very early expression in neurons and glial cells. Moreover, mice in which MAP1B is genetically inactivated have been used extensively to show its role in axonal elongation, neuronal migration, and axonal guidance. In the last few years, it has become apparent that MAP1B has other cellular and molecular functions that are not related to its microtubule‐stabilizing properties in the embryonic and adult brain. In this review, we present a systematic review of the canonical and novel functions of MAP1B and propose that, in addition to regulating the polymerization of microtubule and actin microfilaments, MAP1B also acts as a signaling protein involved in normal physiology and pathological conditions in the nervous system. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 74: 953–971, 2014     

A two‐phase growth strategy in cultured neuronal networks as reflected by the distribution of neurite branching angles

Neurite outgrowth and branching patterns are instrumental in dictating the wiring diagram of developing neuronal networks. We study the self‐organization of single cultured neurons into complex networks focusing on factors governing the branching of a neurite into its daughter branches. Neurite branching angles of insect ganglion neurons in vitro were comparatively measured in two neuronal categories: neurons in dense cultures that bifurcated under the presence of extrinsic (cellular environment) cues versus neurons in practical isolation that developed their neurites following predominantly intrinsic cues. Our experimental results were complemented by theoretical modeling and computer simulations. A preferred regime of branching angles was found in isolated neurons. A model based on biophysical constraints predicted a preferred bifurcation angle that was consistent with this range shown by our real neurons. In order to examine the origin of the preferred regime of angles we constructed simulations of neurite outgrowth in a developing network and compared the simulated developing neurons with our experimental results. We tested cost functions for neuronal growth that would be optimized at a specific regime of angles. Our results suggest two phases in the process of neuronal development. In the first, reflected by our isolated neurons, neurons are tuned to make first contact with a target cell as soon as possible, to minimize the time of growth. After contact is made, that is, after neuronal interconnections are formed, a second branching strategy is adopted, favoring higher efficiency in neurite length and volume. The two‐phase development theory is discussed in relation to previous results. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Neurobiol, 2005     

神经元形态重建工具的研究进展

近年来,分子标记和显微光学成像技术的系列突破,使得单细胞分辨的全脑尺度神经群落成像成为现实.然而,现有神经元形态重建工具的发展速度远远滞后于海量数据的产生速度,难以满足现阶段成像数据的分析需求.在此背景下,我们首先分析了神经元形态重建工具发展滞后的原因,简述现有半自动和全自动神经元形态重建工具的特点和最新发展,并结合现有工具的特点分析其向高通量、高准确度重建工具发展时面临的挑战.最后,我们对未来形态重建工具的发展趋势及应用前景做出展望.     

Structural and functional map for forelimb movement phases between cortex and medulla

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Nanomechanics controls neuronal precursors adhesion and differentiation

The ability to control the differentiation of stem cells into specific neuronal types has a tremendous potential for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. In vitro neuronal differentiation can be guided by the interplay of biochemical and biophysical cues. Different strategies to increase the differentiation yield have been proposed, focusing everything on substrate topography, or, alternatively on substrate stiffness. Both strategies demonstrated an improvement of the cellular response. However it was often impossible to separate the topographical and the mechanical contributions. Here we investigate the role of the mechanical properties of nanostructured substrates, aiming at understanding the ultimate parameters which govern the stem cell differentiation. To this purpose a set of different substrates with controlled stiffness and with or without nanopatterning are used for stem cell differentiation. Our results show that the neuronal differentiation yield depends mainly on the substrate mechanical properties while the geometry plays a minor role. In particular nanostructured and flat polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrates with comparable stiffness show the same neuronal yield. The improvement in the differentiation yield obtained through surface nanopatterning in the submicrometer scale could be explained as a consequence of a substrate softening effect. Finally we investigate by single cell force spectroscopy the neuronal precursor adhesion on the substrate immediately after seeding, as a possible critical step governing the neuronal differentiation efficiency. We observed that neuronal precursor adhesion depends on substrate stiffness but not on surface structure, and in particular it is higher on softer substrates. Our results suggest that cell–substrate adhesion forces and mechanical response are the key parameters to be considered for substrate design in neuronal regenerative medicine. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2013; 110: 2301–2310. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Sequence variants in the melatonin-related receptor gene (GPR50) associate with circulating triglyceride and HDL levels

The gene encoding the melatonin-related receptor (GPR50) is highly expressed within hypothalamic nuclei concerned with the control of body weight and metabolism. We screened GPR50 for mutations in an obese cohort and identified an insertion of four amino acid residues (TTGH) at position 501, two common coding polymorphisms (T528A and V602I), and one noncoding polymorphism (C-16X2GPR50T). Single-nucleotide polymorphisms were then typed in 500 English Caucasian subjects, and associations were sought to intermediate obesity phenotypes. Although no association was seen with body mass index, carriers of two copies of the mutant allele at C-16X2GPR50T, Ins501Del, and A1582G had significantly higher fasting circulating triglyceride levels (P < 0.05). In a separate set of 585 subjects, the associations were replicated, with statistically significant effects of similar magnitude and direction. The association of C-16X2GPR50T with fasting triglycerides was highly significant (P < 0.001). In addition, a significant association between C-16X2GPR50T and circulating HDL levels was observed in the combined population, with C-16X2GPR50T carriers having significantly lower circulating HDL-cholesterol levels (1.39 mM) than wild-type subjects (1.47 mM) (P < 0.01). These findings suggest a previously unexpected role for this orphan receptor in the regulation of lipid metabolism that warrants further investigation.     

Neuronal ribonucleoprotein granules: Dynamic sensors of localized signals

Membrane‐less organelles, because of their capacity to dynamically, selectively and reversibly concentrate molecules, are very well adapted for local information processing and rapid response to environmental fluctuations. These features are particularly important in the context of neuronal cells, where synapse‐specific activation, or localized extracellular cues, induce signaling events restricted to specialized axonal or dendritic subcompartments. Neuronal ribonucleoprotein (RNP) particles, or granules, are nonmembrane bound macromolecular condensates that concentrate specific sets of mRNAs and regulatory proteins, promoting their long‐distance transport to axons or dendrites. Neuronal RNP granules also have a dual function in regulating the translation of associated mRNAs: while preventing mRNA translation at rest, they fuel local protein synthesis upon activation. As revealed by recent work, rapid and reversible switches between these two functional modes are triggered by modifications of the networks of interactions underlying RNP granule assembly. Such flexible properties also come with a cost, as neuronal RNP granules are prone to transition into pathological aggregates in response to mutations, aging, or cellular stresses, further emphasizing the need to better understand the mechanistic principles governing their dynamic assembly and regulation in living systems.