Antarctic macrolichen modifies microclimate and facilitates vascular plants in the maritime Antarctica – a reply to Casanova‐Katny et al. (2014)

In a current article in the Journal of Vegetation Science, Casanova‐Katny et al. addressed a comment about an article by Molina‐Montenegro et al., which demonstrated the climate modification induced by the macrolichen Usnea antarctica and its role as facilitator. They provided useful corrections concerning species identification and pointed out several issues that, in their view, weakened our study. They indicated that the role of U. antarctica as a facilitative species in the maritime Antarctica is merely philosophical and has no ecological relevance. In this commentary, we argue why these critiques are unsubstantial, and provide evidence that the macrolichen can modify the microclimate, ameliorating the harsh conditions prevailing in Antarctica, establishing positive interactions and eventually facilitating vascular species. Thus, the macrolichen U. antarctica would act as a ‘nurse species’, playing a key role in structuring the maritime Antarctic plant community.     

Host specificity,phenotype matching and the evolution of reproductive isolation in a coevolved plant–pollinator mutualism

Coevolutionary interactions between plants and their associated pollinators and seed dispersers are thought to have promoted the diversification of flowering plants ( Raven 1977 ; Regal 1977 ; Stebbins 1981 ). The actual mechanisms by which pollinators could drive species diversification in plants are not fully understood. However, it is thought that pollinator host specialization can influence the evolution of reproductive isolation among plant populations because the pollinator’s choice of host is what determines patterns of gene flow in its host plant, and host choice may also have important consequences on pollinator and host fitness ( Grant 1949 ; Bawa 1992 ). In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Smith et al. (2009) present a very interesting study that addresses how host specialization affects pollinator fitness and patterns of gene flow in a plant host. Several aspects of this study match elements of a seminal mathematical model of plant–pollinator codivergence ( Kiester et al. 1984 ) suggesting that reciprocal selection for matched plant and pollinator reproductive traits may lead to speciation in the host and its pollinator when there is strong host specialization and a pattern of geographic subdivision. Smith et al.’s study represents an important step to fill the gap in our understanding of how reciprocal selection may lead to speciation in coevolved plant–pollinator mutualisms.     

First beetle elytra,abdomen (Coleoptera) and a mine trace from Lunz (Carnian,Late Triassic,Lunz‐am‐See,Austria) and their taphonomical and evolutionary aspects

Abstract: Four new species of Permosynidae are described: Platycrossus caroli Ponomarenko in Meller et al. sp. nov., Hydrobiites handlirschi Ponomarenko in Meller et al. sp. nov., Ademosyne polyzetete Ponomarenko in Meller et al. sp. nov. and Diarcuipenna bennettitophila Ponomarenko in Meller et al. sp. nov. Together with one polyphagous abdomen, they represent the first beetle remains from the Lunz formation, known for its richness in bennettite and cycad leaf remains and also for the bennettite reproductive organs. Furthermore, the first insect mine trace on a Nilssonia leaf segment is described, which is one of the most ancient linear mine traces. The rareness of insect remains in the plant‐bearing layers of the Lunz formation is still an enigma from the taphonomical–chemical point of view. The palaeoentomological and palaeobotanical considerations tentatively indicate a relationship between the rare occurrence of coniferous plants and the evolution or radiation of phytophagous insects during this time.     

The hidden complexity of multi‐species interactions

In this issue of the Journal of Vegetation Science, Michalet et al. used species removal experiments to detect direct and indirect species interactions in a sub‐alpine grassland. They found evidence for competition, facilitation and a range of indirect interactions at the species level, but no measurable effects when aggregated at the community level. Their results raise fundamental questions regarding the role and importance of indirect interactions in structuring ecological communities.     

Bidirectional plant‐mediated interactions between rhizobacteria and shoot‐feeding herbivorous insects: a community ecology perspective

1. Plants interact with various organisms, aboveground as well as belowground. Such interactions result in changes in plant traits with consequences for members of the plant‐associated community at different trophic levels. Research thus far focussed on interactions of plants with individual species. However, studying such interactions in a community context is needed to gain a better understanding.
2. Members of the aboveground insect community induce defences that systemically influence plant interactions with herbivorous as well as carnivorous insects. Plant roots are associated with a community of plant‐growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). This PGPR community modulates insect‐induced defences of plants. Thus, PGPR and insects interact indirectly via plant‐mediated interactions.
3. Such plant‐mediated interactions between belowground PGPR and aboveground insects have usually been addressed unidirectionally from belowground to aboveground. Here, we take a bidirectional approach to these cross‐compartment plant‐mediated interactions.
4. Recent studies show that upon aboveground attack by insect herbivores, plants may recruit rhizobacteria that enhance plant defence against the attackers. This rearranging of the PGPR community in the rhizosphere has consequences for members of the aboveground insect community. This review focusses on the bidirectional nature of plant‐mediated interactions between the PGPR and insect communities associated with plants, including (a) effects of beneficial rhizobacteria via modification of plant defence traits on insects and (b) effects of plant defence against insects on the PGPR community in the rhizosphere. We discuss how such knowledge can be used in the development of sustainable crop‐protection strategies.

     

What makes a specialized endophyte special?

Fungal plant symbionts can be highly specialized on a limited range of host genotypes and species. Understanding the genetic basis of this specialization, the mechanisms governing its establishment and the relationship between specialization and speciation is a major challenge for evolutionary biologists (Timms & Read, 1999 ). A deeper knowledge of evolutionary plant–microbe interactions could be exploited to improve agricultural management, by bringing fungal biodiversity and fungal biomass under greater and more durable human control. Previous studies on pathogens have shown that effectors, that is, small secreted proteins that modulate plant physiology to favour host colonization, play a key role in infection of novel hosts (e.g., Inoue et al., 2017 ) or in host specialization (e.g., Liao et al. ( 2016 )). Like pathogens, endophytes also manipulate the physiology of their hosts and colonize novel hosts to which they specialize (Hardoim et al., 2015 ). These biological characteristics of endophytes raise the question of similarities in the protein arsenal contributing to the specialization of pathogens and endophytes. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Schirrmann et al. ( 2018 ) used a combination of divergence genome scans and tests for positive selection to investigate the genetic basis of specialization of two subspecies of the symbiont Epichloë typhina occurring on two different grass hosts. Their analyses suggest a key role of effectors as determinants of host specialization. This study paves the way towards the comparative analysis of the genomics of speciation among plant symbionts.     

Digest: Plant‐pathogen coevolution extends to shifts in plant breeding systems*

Plants and their pathogens are in a coevolutionary arms race. Some pathogens, such as anther smuts, use their host plants’ pollinators for spore dispersal. In the plant Dianthus pavonius, gynodioecy (having female and hermaphroditic plants) has evolved to reduce flowering duration and therefore limit exposure to anther smut pathogens. Bruns et al. (2019) show that this shift in breeding system has evolved as a disease escape mechanism.     

Mind the gap: scale‐dependent and dispersal‐mediated response to forest fragmentation

Species richness of habitat fragments is affected by spatial isolation. However, the scale of this phenomenon, and its interactions with the species’ seed dispersal potential has remained underexplored. By integrating seed trap and species distribution data, Koh et al., in this issue of the Journal of Vegetation Science, make a compelling case for scale‐dependent species’ responses to forest fragmentation.     

Ecological plant epigenetics: Evidence from model and non‐model species,and the way forward

Growing evidence shows that epigenetic mechanisms contribute to complex traits, with implications across many fields of biology. In plant ecology, recent studies have attempted to merge ecological experiments with epigenetic analyses to elucidate the contribution of epigenetics to plant phenotypes, stress responses, adaptation to habitat, and range distributions. While there has been some progress in revealing the role of epigenetics in ecological processes, studies with non‐model species have so far been limited to describing broad patterns based on anonymous markers of DNA methylation. In contrast, studies with model species have benefited from powerful genomic resources, which contribute to a more mechanistic understanding but have limited ecological realism. Understanding the significance of epigenetics for plant ecology requires increased transfer of knowledge and methods from model species research to genomes of evolutionarily divergent species, and examination of responses to complex natural environments at a more mechanistic level. This requires transforming genomics tools specifically for studying non‐model species, which is challenging given the large and often polyploid genomes of plants. Collaboration among molecular geneticists, ecologists and bioinformaticians promises to enhance our understanding of the mutual links between genome function and ecological processes.     

Fix‐it Felix: advances in testing plant facilitation as a restoration tool

In this issue of Applied Vegetation Science, Rydgren et al. explore net interactions to highlight the contemporary, yet rarely tested, perspectives on using plant facilitation as a restoration tool. An empirical test of restoration highlights the novel developments and supports fundamental ecology on the importance of context dependency, balanced assessments of interactions and the value of theory for applied research.     

Plant chemistry underlies herbivore‐mediated inbreeding depression in nature

The cost of inbreeding (inbreeding depression, ID) is an important variable in the maintenance of reproductive variation. Ecological interactions such as herbivory could modulate this cost, provided that defence traits harbour deleterious mutations and herbivores are responsible for differences in fitness. In the field, we manipulated the presence of herbivores on experimentally inbred and outcrossed plants of Solanum carolinense (horsenettle) for three years. Damage was greater on inbred plants, and ID for growth and fitness was significantly greater under herbivory. Inbreeding reduced phenolic expression both qualitatively (phytochemical diversity) and quantitatively, indicating deleterious load at loci related to the biosynthesis of defence compounds. Our results indicate that inbreeding effects on plant–herbivore interactions are mediated by changes to functional plant metabolites, suggesting that variation in inbreeding could be a predictor of defence trait variation. The magnitude of herbivore‐mediated, ecological ID indicates that herbivores could maintain outcrossing mating systems in nature.     

The unfolding of plant growth form‐defence syndromes along elevation gradients

Understanding the functional economics that drives plant investment of resources requires investigating the interface between plant phenotypes and the variation in ecological conditions. While allocation to defence represents a large portion of the carbon budget, this axis is usually neglected in the study of plant economic spectrum. Using a novel geometrical approach, we analysed the co‐variation in a comprehensive set of functional traits related to plant growth strategies, as well as chemical defences against herbivores on all 15 Cardamine species present in the Swiss Alps. By extracting geometrical information of the functional space, we observed clustering of plants into three main syndromes. Those different strategies of growth form and defence were also distributed within distinct elevational bands demonstrating an association between the functional space and the ecological conditions. We conclude that plant strategies converge into clear syndromes that trade off abiotic tolerance, growth and defence within each elevation zone.     

Plant‐mediated interactions between two herbivores differentially affect a subsequently arriving third herbivore in populations of wild cabbage

• Plants are part of biodiverse communities and frequently suffer from attack by multiple herbivorous insects. Plant responses to these herbivores are specific for insect feeding guilds: aphids and caterpillars induce different plant phenotypes. Moreover, plants respond differentially to single or dual herbivory, which may cascade into a chain of interactions in terms of resistance to other community members. Whether differential responses to single or dual herbivory have consequences for plant resistance to yet a third herbivore is unknown.
• We assessed the effects of single or dual herbivory by Brevicoryne brassicae aphids and/or Plutella xylostella caterpillars on resistance of plants from three natural populations of wild cabbage to feeding by caterpillars of Mamestra brassicae. We measured plant gene expression and phytohormone concentrations to illustrate mechanisms involved in induced responses.
• Performance of both B. brassicae and P. xylostella was reduced when feeding simultaneously with the other herbivore, compared to feeding alone. Gene expression and phytohormone concentrations in plants exposed to dual herbivory were different from those found in plants exposed to herbivory by either insect alone. Plants previously induced by both P. xylostella and B. brassicae negatively affected growth of the subsequently arriving M. brassicae. Furthermore, induced responses varied between wild cabbage populations.
• Feeding by multiple herbivores differentially activates plant defences, which has plant‐mediated negative consequences for a subsequently arriving herbivore. Plant population‐specific responses suggest that plant populations adapt to the specific communities of insect herbivores. Our study contributes to the understanding of plant defence plasticity in response to multiple insect attacks.

     

Ecologically flexible endemics dominate Indo‐Pacific bird communities

Reeve et al. (2016, Ecography, 39 , 990‐997) found that ecologically flexible endemics dominate Indo‐Pacific bird communities. This negative relationship between local abundance and global range size contrasts strongly with the positive range size‐abundance relationship “rule,” which would predict community dominance by globally widespread species. Theuerkauf et al. (2017, Journal of Biogeography, 44 , 2161–2163) provide new data from New Caledonia which they claim invalidate our study. They find positive relationships between local abundance and local range size, which they attribute to endemic species having narrower habitat niches than globally widespread species. We reanalysed their data using global range sizes, corroborating the pattern we originally reported: negative relationships between local abundance and global range size, driven by a subset of adaptable endemic species. We stress the importance of being explicit about the scale of ecological mechanisms, and ensuring that the scale of analysis matches the scale of interpretation.     

Flower wars

The role of competition in structuring plant communities has recently entered a new phase by considering interactions with pollinators. In this issue of Journal of Vegetation Science, Fantinato et al. show that co‐occurring grassland plants tend to use different pollinators or diverge in anther morphology. The study opens the door for investigation of the ecological and evolutionary processes that generate this pattern.     

UVB radiation and 17‐hydroxygeranyllinalool diterpene glycosides provide durable resistance against mirid (Tupiocoris notatus) attack in field‐grown Nicotiana attenuata plants

Depending on geographical location, plants are exposed to variable amounts of UVB radiation and herbivore attack. Because the role(s) of UVB in the priming and/or accumulation of plant defence metabolites against herbivores are not well understood, we used field‐grown Nicotiana attenuata plants to explore the effects of UVB on herbivore performance. Consistent with previous reports, UVB‐exposed plants accumulated higher levels of ultraviolet (UV)‐absorbing compounds (rutin, chlorogenic acid, crypto‐chlorogenic acid and dicaffeoylspermidine). Furthermore, UVB increased the accumulation of jasmonic acid, jasmonoyl‐L‐isoleucine and abscisic acid, all phytohormones which regulate plant defence against biotic and abiotic stress. In herbivore bioassays, N. attenuata plants experimentally protected from UVB were more infested by mirids in three consecutive field seasons. Among defence metabolites measured, 17‐hydroxygeranyllinalool diterpene glycosides (HGL‐DTGs) showed strongly altered accumulation patterns. While constitutive HGL‐DTGs levels were higher under UVB, N. attenuata plants exposed to mirid bugs (Tupiocoris notatus) had still more HGL‐DTGs under UVB, and mirids preferred to feed on HGL‐DTGs‐silenced plants when other UVB protecting factors were eliminated by UVB filters. We conclude that UVB exposure not only stimulates UV protective screens but also affects plant defence mechanisms, such as HGL‐DTGs accumulation, and modulates ecological interactions of N. attenuata with its herbivores in nature.     

Bacteriophage exclusion,a new defense system

The ability to withstand viral predation is critical for survival of most microbes. Accordingly, a plethora of phage resistance systems has been identified in bacterial genomes (Labrie et al, 2010 ), including restriction‐modification systems (R‐M) (Tock & Dryden, 2005 ), abortive infection (Abi) (Chopin et al, 2005 ), Argonaute‐based interference (Swarts et al, 2014 ), as well as clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and associated protein (Cas) adaptive immune system (CRISPR‐Cas) (Barrangou & Marraffini, 2014 ; Van der Oost et al, 2014 ). Predictably, the dark matter of bacterial genomes contains a wealth of genetic gold. A study published in this issue of The EMBO Journal by Goldfarb et al ( 2015 ) unveils bacteriophage exclusion (BREX) as a novel, widespread bacteriophage resistance system that provides innate immunity against virulent and temperate phage in bacteria.     

Metabolomic analysis of the interaction between plants and herbivores

Insect herbivores by necessity have to deal with a large arsenal of plant defence metabolites. The levels of defence compounds may be increased by insect damage. These induced plant responses may also affect the metabolism and performance of successive insect herbivores. As the chemical nature of induced responses is largely unknown, global metabolomic analyses are a valuable tool to gain more insight into the metabolites possibly involved in such interactions. This study analyzed the interaction between feral cabbage (Brassica oleracea) and small cabbage white caterpillars (Pieris rapae) and how previous attacks to the plant affect the caterpillar metabolism. Because plants may be induced by shoot and root herbivory, we compared shoot and root induction by treating the plants on either plant part with jasmonic acid. Extracts of the plants and the caterpillars were chemically analysed using Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography/Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (UPLCT/MS). The study revealed that the levels of three structurally related coumaroylquinic acids were elevated in plants treated on the shoot. The levels of these compounds in plants and caterpillars were highly correlated: these compounds were defined as the ‘metabolic interface’. The role of these metabolites could only be discovered using simultaneous analysis of the plant and caterpillar metabolomes. We conclude that a metabolomics approach is useful in discovering unexpected bioactive compounds involved in ecological interactions between plants and their herbivores and higher trophic levels.     

Digest: Little evidence exists for a virulence‐transmission trade‐off*

Research predicting the impact and spread of infectious disease has been heavily influenced by the idea of an evolutionary trade‐off between a pathogen's virulence and its transmission rate. In a meta‐analysis of the key underlying relationships, Acevedo et al. (2019) highlight the surprising lack of empirical evidence for this influential hypothesis.