CrPP2C蛋白影响衣藻细胞鞭毛过渡区结构

目的:在莱茵衣藻细胞中构建并筛选鞭毛组装缺陷突变体,克隆缺陷基因,探索其对鞭毛组装的影响。方法:使用带有巴龙霉素(Paromomycin)抗性的基因片段随机插入衣藻细胞基因组中,通过性状筛选和基因序列分析获得与CrPP2C(Chlamydomonas reinhardtii type 2C protein phosphatase)基因相关的鞭毛异常突变体,根据突变体基本生物学性状和生化分析对CrPP2C基因的功能进行分析。结果:采用电转法成功获得衣藻细胞鞭毛缺陷相关突变体,部分细胞具有短鞭毛,部分细胞则不具有鞭毛;通过RESDA-PCR(restriction enzyme site-directed amplification PCR)对突变体基因序列分析,鞭毛缺陷性状由CrPP2C基因遭到破坏导致;把含有完整CrPP2C基因的重组质粒通过电转法导入突变体后,其鞭毛几乎恢复为野生型长度,并可检测到PP2C-HA融合蛋白的表达;观察鞭毛再生,突变体鞭毛只能再生为原有长度;使用药物处理使鞭毛缩短,突变体鞭毛能正常解聚;电镜检测突变体的鞭毛显微结构,发现过渡区的Y形结构缺陷。结论:CrPP2C基因的破坏导致鞭毛过渡区结构缺失,影响鞭毛组装过程,不组装鞭毛或组装短鞭毛。     

VANGL2在人hUVEC细胞中初级纤毛装配和解聚的作用

动脉粥样硬化是心血管疾病的主要发病原因。大量研究显示,动脉粥样硬化的形成与内皮细胞的初级纤毛相关。探讨内皮细胞中的初级纤毛装配和解聚的机制,对于揭示动脉粥样硬化的发病机制具有重要的理论和实践意义。目前,作为平面细胞极化(PCP)信号通路的特有组分VANGL平面细胞极性蛋白2(VANGL2)在内皮细胞中与初级纤毛相关的研究甚少。因此,本研究构建VANGL2的慢病毒稳定干扰和过表达人脐静脉内皮细胞(hUVEC)系。从形态学上对初级纤毛分布的情况进行标记,同时用免疫荧光对VANGL2可能相互作用的蛋白质进行共定位检测,并利用免疫印迹进一步对其下游蛋白质蓬乱蛋白(DVL2)、初级纤毛装配相关蛋白质巴特-比德尔综合征8(BBS8)和纤毛内转运系统88(IFT88)、初级纤毛解聚相关蛋白质运动蛋白家族成员2A(KIF2A)和143位点处丝氨酸磷酸化的蓬乱蛋白(pDVL2)进行检测,用免疫共沉淀检测与VANGL2、下游蛋白质DVL2相互作用的蛋白质。结果表明,免疫荧光标记初级纤毛的荧光图显示,过表达VANGL2后初级纤毛数量显著增多(P0.05),其长度也较其他组更长,其定位方向更倾向于VANGL2富集的位置,并位于初级纤毛的基部。免疫荧光共定位显示,BBS8、IFT88均与VANGL2共定位,在过表达VANGL2组中均呈极性分布,PLK1也与VANGL2存在共定位情况,但整体上PLK1的表达量较低。免疫印迹结果显示,过表达VANGL2时,其下游蛋白质DVL2上调(P0.01)。同时,初级纤毛解聚相关蛋白质KIF2A也上调(P0.01)。此外,与初级纤毛解聚途径激活有关的pDVL2下调(P0.05),初级纤毛装配相关的蛋白质BBS8、IFT88发生上调(P0.01)。免疫共沉淀结果显示,VANGL2与DVL2存在相互作用关系,且VANGL2和DVL2均与KIF2A相互作用,但DVL2与KIF2A相互作用的程度较强。综上结果表明,VANGL2可能通过上调DVL2并增加DVL2与KIF2A的相互作用而促进初级纤毛的解聚过程。同时,通过下调pDVL2、上调初级纤毛装配相关蛋白质BBS8和IFT88而增加初级纤毛的装配过程。但在过表达VANGL2组中,初级纤毛装配的过程比解聚占优势,两者最终的平衡决定初级纤毛的发生情况,为进一步研究VANGL2在内皮细胞中初级纤毛装配和解聚的机制研究提供见解。     

巴德-毕氏综合征有关致病基因与病理的研究进展

巴德-毕氏综合征(Bardet-Biedl syndrome,BBS)是一种罕见的常染色体隐性遗传病,具有高度的遗传异质性。迄今为止,已发现18个BBS基因,其突变均可导致BBS表型。已有研究发现,BBS是一种与纤毛相关的疾病。BBS基因的突变或缺陷可能影响纤毛结构或功能,从而导致BBS表型。现就主要针对纤毛的结构、形成过程进行解析,探讨纤毛缺陷和BBS基因、蛋白之间的相互关系,试图更全面地阐述BBS与纤毛缺陷之间的关系。     

纤毛及纤毛相关疾病研究进展

纤毛是一种以细胞微管为主形成的突出于细胞表面的结构,分布于哺乳动物体内的大多数细胞。近年来研究发现,很多人类疾病都与纤毛结构、长度的失调相关,所以有关纤毛的研究是目前研究的热点领域。越来越多的证据证明,纤毛除了提供流体推动力参与细胞的运动功能之外,还具有信号传导的功能,在细胞生命活动的各个方面发挥着多种关键作用。它参与调控细胞生理活动、增殖与分化以及动物个体发育。因此,深入地探索纤毛调控机理对基础生物学理论的发展和人类纤毛相关疾病的攻克有重要意义。该文简要介绍了纤毛的结构、组装与解聚的机制、参与信号传导的功能以及纤毛缺陷同人类疾病的关系。     

细胞纤毛在信号转导与器官发育中的作用与机制

纤毛(cilia)是细胞表面的突起状细胞器,几乎存在于所有细胞表面,且广泛分布于组织和器官的上皮.纤毛由外部的纤毛膜和内部的轴丝组成,结构在进化上十分保守.根据微管组成和排列方式的不同,纤毛可分为9+2型运动纤毛与9+0型基本纤毛或非运动纤毛.作为一种特殊的感受器,纤毛通过影响细胞信号通路参与胚胎形成、心脏等内脏器官发育及人体重要生理活动.本课题组在国际上首次把前列腺素信号通路与纤毛生长及心脏发育相联系.研究发现,ABCC4/LKT前列腺素转运蛋白从细胞内运输前列腺素E2(PGE2)至细胞外,并通过结合位于纤毛膜上的G蛋白偶联受体EP4影响细胞内c AMP浓度,调节纤毛内运输蛋白的正向速率,进而调控纤毛生长与心脏等器官的左右不对称性发育.纤毛生长或功能缺陷会引发先天性心脏病、多囊肾、视网膜变性等多种疾病.本文主要介绍纤毛参与调控细胞内信号转导与器官发育及相关纤毛疾病.     

Kinesin-2家族在模式生物中的功能研究进展

Kinesin-2蛋白是Kinesin超级蛋白家族的一个亚家族,成员包括KIF3A,KIF3B,KIF3C以及KIF17。作为分子马达蛋白,Kinesin-2家族成员参与了细胞内多种蛋白复合体及囊泡的运输,对细胞行使各种生物学功能非常重要。近年来发现Kinesin-2在纤毛内物质运输方面发挥重要作用,其功能缺陷可导致纤毛发育异常,进而影响组织器官的发育,并最终导致多种纤毛疾病的形成。本综述将对近期Kinesin-2的研究进展进行介绍,将着重介绍kinesin-2家族成员在模式生物研究中的新进展。     

微管解聚蛋白Stathmin的研究进展

微管解聚蛋白Stathmin属于微管不稳定调节蛋白家族成员之一,具有促进微管解聚活性。Stathmin通过与细胞内多种蛋白质相互作用,参与细胞生命过程,包括调控细胞周期、细胞运动、细胞内信号转导、胞内物质运输等。Stathmin由蛋白激酶,如MAPK、CDK等磷酸化调控,在微管解聚中发挥重要作用。研究证实Stathmin的高表达与食管癌的发生发展,对作用于微管的化疗药物的疗效相关。现就Stathmin的结构特点、生物学功能、与其他分子的相互作用,及其与食管癌相关等方面的研究进展做一综述。     

纤毛、纤毛发生与Wnt/PCP信号通路

纤毛是以微管为核心组分、突出于细胞表面且高度保守的细胞器,具有运动、摄食、感知并传递外界信号等功能。纤毛发生是纤毛在细胞膜表面定位并装配的过程。多年来,对纤毛发生过程及其调控机制的探索始终是亚细胞结构与功能研究的热点之一。Wnt/PCP信号通路是参与胚胎及器官发育的主要信号转导途径之一。近年来大量研究显示,Wnt/PCP信号通路和纤毛发生密切相关。纤毛结构与功能的异常可造成Wnt/PCP信号通路异常,导致纤毛相关疾病的发生;同时,Wnt/PCP信号通路又决定着纤毛的形态和极性。因此,深入研究纤毛与Wnt/PCP信号通路的关系将有助于从细胞与分子生物学水平揭示纤毛发生的调控机制。     

纤毛疾病和与之相关的基因

近年来,研究发现纤毛在生成或者形态的缺陷均能导致新生儿遗传性疾病。与其他细胞器不同的是,纤毛这一小的毛发状细胞器能在几乎所有的极性细胞表面上生成,而且功能非常多样化。纤毛在调节脊椎动物的发育和内环境的平衡起着相当重要的作用,而与纤毛相关基因的缺失则与一系列疾病相关,包括:Nephronophthisis、Joubert综合症、Meckel-Gruber综合症和BardetBiedl综合症等。结合最近的研究,本文主要对四类主纤毛相关疾病的基因进行归类总结。     

动纤毛轴丝的分子组装

纤毛/鞭毛是从细胞膜表面突出的真核细胞器,它能调节细胞运动及细胞周围液体流动,或者参与机体的感知功能,其异常会引发多种人类纤毛病。作为最早被发现的细胞器之一,纤毛一直是细胞生物学领域的重点研究对象,但是因结构大且复杂,其分子组装机制的揭示长期以来一直是个难题。近些年,随着冷冻电镜技术的发展,多个课题组先后报道了从衣藻到哺乳动物精子鞭毛的轴丝各部分高分辨率结构。该文综述了动纤毛的结构组成和最新的分子组装研究进展,重点描述了轴丝各个组成部分包括双联微管(DMT)、内外动力臂(IDA和ODA)、辐条结构(RS)、中央微管对(CP)和连接复合物(N-DRC)的蛋白组成和分布,为深入理解纤毛的组装过程和功能调节提供了科学依据。     

Chlamydomonas IFT88 and its mouse homologue, polycystic kidney disease gene tg737, are required for assembly of cilia and flagella

Intraflagellar transport (IFT) is a rapid movement of multi-subunit protein particles along flagellar microtubules and is required for assembly and maintenance of eukaryotic flagella. We cloned and sequenced a Chlamydomonas cDNA encoding the IFT88 subunit of the IFT particle and identified a Chlamydomonas insertional mutant that is missing this gene. The phenotype of this mutant is normal except for the complete absence of flagella. IFT88 is homologous to mouse and human genes called Tg737. Mice with defects in Tg737 die shortly after birth from polycystic kidney disease. We show that the primary cilia in the kidney of Tg737 mutant mice are shorter than normal. This indicates that IFT is important for primary cilia assembly in mammals. It is likely that primary cilia have an important function in the kidney and that defects in their assembly can lead to polycystic kidney disease.     

Intraflagellar transport particles participate directly in cilium-generated signaling in Chlamydomonas

Primary cilia are widely used for signal transduction during development and in homeostasis and are assembled and maintained by intraflagellar transport (IFT). Here, we have dissected the role of IFT in signaling within the flagella (structural and functional counterparts of cilia) of the biflagellated green alga Chlamydomonas. Using a conditional IFT mutant enables us to deplete the IFT machinery from intact, existing flagella. We identify a cGMP-dependent protein kinase (CrPKG) within flagella as the substrate of a protein tyrosine kinase activated by flagellar adhesion during fertilization. We demonstrate that flagellar adhesion stimulates association of CrPKG with a new flagellar compartment. Moreover, formation of the compartment requires IFT, and IFT particles themselves are part of the compartment. Our results lead to a model in which the IFT machinery is required not only for assembling cilia and flagella but also for organizing a signaling pathway within the organelles during cilium-generated signaling.     

Protein phosphorylation is a key event of flagellar disassembly revealed by analysis of flagellar phosphoproteins during flagellar shortening in Chlamydomonas

Cilia are disassembled prior to cell division, which is proposed to regulate proper cell cycle progression. The signaling pathways that regulate cilia disassembly are not well-understood. Recent biochemical and genetic data demonstrate that protein phosphorylation plays important roles in cilia disassembly. Here, we analyzed the phosphoproteins in the membrane/matrix fraction of flagella undergoing shortening as well as flagella from steady state cells of Chlamydomonas. The phosphopeptides were enriched by a combination of IMAC and titanium dioxide chromatography with a strategy of sequential elution from IMAC (SIMAC) and analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry. A total of 224 phosphoproteins derived from 1296 spectral counts of phosphopeptides were identified. Among the identified phosphoproteins are flagellar motility proteins such as outer dynein arm, intraflagellar transport proteins as well as signaling molecules including protein kinases, phosphatases, G proteins, and ion channels. Eighty-nine of these phosphoproteins were only detected in shortening flagella, whereas 29 were solely in flagella of steady growing cells, indicating dramatic changes of protein phosphorylation during flagellar shortening. Our data indicates that protein phosphorylation is a key event in flagellar disassembly, and paves the way for further study of flagellar assembly and disassembly controlled by protein phosphorylation.     

A protein methylation pathway in Chlamydomonas flagella is active during flagellar resorption

During intraflagellar transport (IFT), the regulation of motor proteins, the loading and unloading of cargo and the turnover of flagellar proteins all occur at the flagellar tip. To begin an analysis of the protein composition of the flagellar tip, we used difference gel electrophoresis to compare long versus short (i.e., regenerating) flagella. The concentration of tip proteins should be higher relative to that of tubulin (which is constant per unit length of the flagellum) in short compared with long flagella. One protein we have identified is the cobalamin-independent form of methionine synthase (MetE). Antibodies to MetE label flagella in a punctate pattern reminiscent of IFT particle staining, and immunoblot analysis reveals that the amount of MetE in flagella is low in full-length flagella, increased in regenerating flagella, and highest in resorbing flagella. Four methylated proteins have been identified in resorbing flagella, using antibodies specific for asymmetrically dimethylated arginine residues. These proteins are found almost exclusively in the axonemal fraction, and the methylated forms of these proteins are essentially absent in full-length and regenerating flagella. Because most cells resorb cilia/flagella before cell division, these data indicate a link between flagellar protein methylation and progression through the cell cycle.     

Single-particle imaging reveals intraflagellar transport–independent transport and accumulation of EB1 in Chlamydomonas flagella

The microtubule (MT) plus-end tracking protein EB1 is present at the tips of cilia and flagella; end-binding protein 1 (EB1) remains at the tip during flagellar shortening and in the absence of intraflagellar transport (IFT), the predominant protein transport system in flagella. To investigate how EB1 accumulates at the flagellar tip, we used in vivo imaging of fluorescent protein–tagged EB1 (EB1-FP) in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. After photobleaching, the EB1 signal at the flagellar tip recovered within minutes, indicating an exchange with unbleached EB1 entering the flagella from the cell body. EB1 moved independent of IFT trains, and EB1-FP recovery did not require the IFT pathway. Single-particle imaging showed that EB1-FP is highly mobile along the flagellar shaft and displays a markedly reduced mobility near the flagellar tip. Individual EB1-FP particles dwelled for several seconds near the flagellar tip, suggesting the presence of stable EB1 binding sites. In simulations, the two distinct phases of EB1 mobility are sufficient to explain its accumulation at the tip. We propose that proteins uniformly distributed throughout the cytoplasm like EB1 accumulate locally by diffusion and capture; IFT, in contrast, might be required to transport proteins against cellular concentration gradients into or out of cilia.     

The Chlamydomonas reinhardtii BBSome is an IFT cargo required for export of specific signaling proteins from flagella

In humans, seven evolutionarily conserved genes that cause the cilia-related disorder Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) encode proteins that form a complex termed the BBSome. The function of the BBSome in the cilium is not well understood. We purified a BBSome-like complex from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii flagella and found that it contains at least BBS1, -4, -5, -7, and -8 and undergoes intraflagellar transport (IFT) in association with a subset of IFT particles. C. reinhardtii insertional mutants defective in BBS1, -4, and -7 assemble motile, full-length flagella but lack the ability to phototax. In the bbs4 mutant, the assembly and transport of IFT particles are unaffected, but the flagella abnormally accumulate several signaling proteins that may disrupt phototaxis. We conclude that the BBSome is carried by IFT but is an adapter rather than an integral component of the IFT machinery. C. reinhardtii BBS4 may be required for the export of signaling proteins from the flagellum via IFT.     

The phosphorylation state of an aurora-like kinase marks the length of growing flagella in Chlamydomonas

Flagella and cilia are structurally polarized organelles whose lengths are precisely defined, and alterations in length are related to several human disorders. Intraflagellar transport (IFT) and protein signaling molecules are implicated in specifying flagellar and ciliary length, but evidence has been lacking for a flagellum and cilium length sensor that could participate in active length control or establishment of structural polarity. Previously, we showed that the phosphorylation state of the aurora-like protein kinase CALK in Chlamydomonas is a marker of the absence of flagella. Here we show that CALK phosphorylation state is also a marker for flagellar length. CALK is phosphorylated in cells without flagella, and during flagellar assembly it becomes dephosphorylated. Dephosphorylation is not simply a consequence of initiation of flagellar assembly or of time after experimentally induced flagellar loss, but instead requires flagella to be assembled to a threshold length. Analysis of cells with flagella of varying lengths shows that the threshold length for CALK dephosphorylation is ~6 μm (half length). Studies with short and long flagellar mutants indicate that cells detect absolute rather than relative flagellar length. Our results demonstrate that cells possess a mechanism for translating flagellar length into a posttranslational modification of a known flagellar regulatory protein.