土拨鼠肝炎病毒感染模型在乙型肝炎研究中的应用

乙型肝炎病毒(hepatitis B virus, HBV)是嗜肝DNA病毒的原型,HBV感染所致的乙型肝炎是严重危害我国人民身体健康的公共卫生问题。现有的抗乙肝药物包括核苷类似物和干扰素均难以达到临床治愈,研究新的抗乙肝药物、评价新的联合治疗策略均离不开合适的动物模型。土拨鼠肝炎病毒(woodchuck hepatitis virus, WHV)于1978年美国费城动物园患肝癌的土拨鼠中首次被发现,因其基因组结构、复制周期与HBV高度近似,被归类为嗜肝DNA病毒。WHV感染土拨鼠后的自然史与HBV感染人高度近似,因此土拨鼠模型很早就被用于乙肝DNA疫苗、抗HBV药物的评价。近年来土拨鼠多种细胞因子及其受体、免疫细胞表面标志先后被克隆和鉴定,T细胞应答的检测方法包括淋巴细胞增殖实验、CD107a脱颗粒实验逐步被建立,大大促进了土拨鼠模型在HBV发病机制及免疫调节治疗中的应用。本文主要综述了WHV感染土拨鼠模型的免疫学特征,以及该模型在抗乙肝病毒药物评价和免疫调节治疗中的应用。     

土拨鼠染色体组型分析

在肿瘤细胞形成及发展的过程中,普遍存在染色体畸变。东方土拨鼠(Marmota monax)易感染与肝硬化和肝癌有关的乙型肝炎病毒,它是研究人类乙型肝炎病毒与原发性肝癌关系的最合适的动物模型。因此,了解土拨鼠正常     

土拨鼠染色体组型分析

在肿瘤细胞形成及发展的过程中,普遍存 在染色体畸变。东方土拨鼠(Marmota monax) 易感染与肝硬化和肝癌有关的乙型肝炎病毒, 它是研究人类乙型肝炎病毒与原发性肝癌关系 的最合适的动物模型。因此,了解土拨鼠正常 的染色体结构,可为深入研究土拨鼠肝癌细胞 的染色体畸变及其肝炎病毒基因的表现提供基 础,进而为了解人类肝癌病因和发病机理提供 线索。     

荧光定量PCR检测土拨鼠肝炎病毒核酸方法的建立

目的建立土拨鼠肝炎病毒（woodchuck hepatitis virus,WHV）核酸的荧光定量PCR（Real-time PCR）检测方法,应用于土拨鼠肝炎病毒模型的研究。方法分别根据土拨鼠肝炎病毒核心抗原（WHcAg）和表面抗原（WHsAg）的DNA序列设计13对扩增引物,从中筛选无非特异性扩增及引物二聚体且灵敏度高的引物,用于土拨鼠血清中WHV DNA的Real-time PCR检测。建立感染土拨鼠肝炎病毒的土拨鼠血清中WHV核酸的Real-timePCR检测方法。结果根据WHsAg基因的5＇端设计的一对引物WHVSF1与WHVSR1,检测灵敏度可达1×101拷贝/μL,病毒拷贝数与Real-time PCR Ct值的标准曲线的R2值为0.997,且电泳未见明显非特异性条带及引物二聚体。结论建立了土拨鼠血清中WHV DNA的Real-time PCR检测方法,该方法为进一步研究土拨鼠肝炎病毒模型奠定了基础。     

乙肝患者血清HBXN-末端,C-末端和中部的识别

<正>对于哺乳动物嗜肝DNA病毒基因组x区域第四个也是最小的开读框架(OPF)的了解甚微,据知在人或土拨鼠感染期间,这个区域呈现表答,即产生抗x基因产物的抗体。最近的研究表明x基因产物起转录激活因子的作用。     

新生与成年土拨鼠肝组织中部分差异表达的基因比较分析

目的新生土拨鼠感染土拨鼠肝炎病毒后,大部分发展为慢性肝炎,而成年土拨鼠感染后则多发生急性自限性肝炎。本实验目的就是寻找其肝组织中可能导致这种预后差异的关键基因。方法采用全基因组表达谱芯片技术,对比新生与成年小鼠肝组织基因表达差异,选取目的基因,再通过多个物种序列比对,设计简并引物,在土拨鼠肝组织eDNA中扩增对应基因,测序,再次设计引物,进行实时荧光定量PCR。结果与新生土拨鼠相比,成年土拨鼠肝细胞中与钙离子重吸收相关基因DNMl（Dynamin1）、DNM3（Dynamin3）及Prkcc（proteinkinaseC,gamma）表达率明显升高,分别上升2．65±0．25倍、1．90±0．34倍、2．94±0．54倍。结论在钙离子重吸收通路中,在两组小鼠肝脏中表达差异最明显的上述三个基因,在新生组与成年组土拨鼠之间也有明显差异。此类基因造成肝细胞内钙离子浓度的差别,间接影响其中肝炎病毒的复制。这种表达差异很可能是导致两个年龄段动物感染土拨鼠肝炎病毒后转归不同的原因之一。     

大鼠肝和肝癌DNA酶切片段与标记RNA杂交图谱比较

Southern印迹杂交实验提示,大鼠肝15kbp EcoR Ⅰ片段与~(125)Ⅰ标记核RNA杂交带强度,大于肝癌DNA相应片段;当以5′-~(32)P标记核RNA和3′-~(32)P标记核RNA代替~(125)Ⅰ标记核RNA时,在肝癌相应DNA片段处几无可见的杂交带。大鼠肝2.4kbp EcoR Ⅰ片段与~(125)Ⅰ标记核RNA杂交带明显强于肝癌相应DNA片段。而大鼠肝癌2.0kbp EcoRⅠ片段与~(125)Ⅰ标记核RNA的杂交带明显强于大鼠肝相应DNA片段。大鼠肝2.2kbp和5kbpBamH Ⅰ片段与~(125)Ⅰ标记核RNA或5′-~(32)P标记核RNA或3′-~(32)P标记核RNA的杂交带,均明显高于肝癌相应DNA片段。~(125)Ⅰ标记大鼠肝癌核RNA与大鼠肝和肝癌2.2kbp或1.1kbpEcoR ⅠDNA片段的杂交带,弱于用~(125)Ⅰ标记大鼠肝核RNA为探针得之结果,当以5′-~(32)P标记核RNA代替~(125)Ⅰ标记核RNA为探针时,差异更明显。     

自然人群乙型肝炎病毒慢性感染者HBV DNA的流行病学分析

目的了解寿光市自然人群乙型肝炎病毒(hepatitis B virus,HBV)慢性感染者HBV DNA的流行病学特征,为乙型肝炎的防治提供依据。方法采集2012年寿光市3个镇街道居民体检发现的HBs Ag阳性者静脉血5 m L,以实时荧光定量聚合酶链反应(FQ-PCR)法检测血清HBV DNA载量,分析HBV DNA与性别、年龄、有无乙肝/肝癌家族史、密切接触史、输血史等因素的相关性。结果在2 026例HBs Ag阳性感染者中,HBV DNA阳性率为49.41%(1 001/2 026),HBV DNA载量的平均值为6.27×107拷贝/m L。其中男性HBV DNA阳性率为53.28%(585/1 098),女性为44.83%(416/928),差异有统计学意义(χ2=14.370,P<0.01);HBV DNA均值男性为(6.72×107±2.07×108)拷贝/m L,女性为(5.56×107±1.44×108)拷贝/m L,差异无统计学意义(t=0.447,P>0.05)。HBVDNA阳性率与年龄呈负相关(r=-0.983),与HBV感染的主要影响因素乙肝/肝癌家族史、密切接触史、输血史等均无关。结论 HBV DNA阳性率与慢性HBV感染者的性别、年龄有关,与HBV感染的主要影响因素无关。     

肝癌患者单个核细胞线粒体DNA拷贝数与抗氧化能力的变化

目的:探讨肝癌患者单个核细胞(PBMC)线粒体DNA(mt DNA)拷贝数的变化及其与机体抗氧化能力的关系。方法:用Ficoll Hypaque离心法分离外周血单个核细胞(PBMC),采用实时荧光定量PCR反应,检测线粒体NADH脱氢酶亚基1(ND1)基因的拷贝数,并以核基因组的β-actin作为内参基因,比较25例肝癌患者与30例健康人外周血单个核细胞中mt DNA拷贝数的差异。流式细胞术检测单个核细胞活性氧(ROS)含量的变化。生化检测法检测血浆中总抗氧化能力(T-AOC)的变化。结果:肝癌组外周血单个核细胞ND1基因拷贝数是健康对照组的73%,表明肝癌患者外周血单个核细胞mt DNA拷贝数明显下降。肝癌组单个核细胞活性氧含量的平均荧光强度为(417.82±110.62),健康对照组为(301.82±75.54),肝癌组单个核细胞活性氧含量显著高于健康对照组(P0.01)。肝癌组血浆总抗氧化能力(单位/毫升血浆)吸光度为(1.30±0.85),健康对照组为(3.20±1.62),肝癌组血浆总抗氧化能力显著低于健康对照组(P0.01)。结论:肝癌患者的外周血单个核细胞线粒体DNA拷贝数减少可能与机体抗氧化水平下降有关。     

乙型肝炎病毒复制水平对原发性肝癌发病的影响

目的:探讨乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)复制水平对原发性肝细胞肝癌(HCC)发病的影响.方法:调查226例HCC患者和51例乙型肝炎后肝硬化(LC)患者,分别应用ELISA法和聚合酶链式反应(PCR)检测血清乙型肝炎病毒标志物(HBV-M)和DNA含量.结果:HCC患者中HBsAg阳性率为96.9%;168例HCC患者和51乙型肝炎后LC患者接受HBV DNA定量检测.阳性率分别为85.1%、88.2%,两组患者lg HBV DNA均服从正态分布,HBV DNA的均数为105.49±1.49拷贝/ml、106.15±1.38拷贝/ml,乙型肝炎后LC组患者血清HBV DNA含量较高(P＜0.05);乙型肝炎后LC患者中HBeAg阳性率较HCC组高(P＜0.05);HCC患者血清HBVDNA含量与HBeAg阳性没有明显的相关性(P＞0.05),乙型肝炎后LC患者血清HBV DNA含量与HBeAg阳性密切相关(P＜0.05);两组患者血清HBV DNA含量与性别、年龄、感染HBV的时间等因素均无明显的相关性(均为P＞0.05).结论:我国HCC的发病与HBV感染密切相关,但可能与患者是否存在HBV高水平复制无关.     

Monitoring of early events of experimental woodchuck hepatitis infection: Studies of peripheral blood mononuclear cells by cytofluorometry and PCR

Abstract The peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of woodchucks experimentally infected by woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) were examined simultaneously for the presence of membrane associated WHV antigens by cytofluorometry, and for WHV DNA and RNA sequences by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Four woodchucks were inoculated: two with a well-defined infectious inoculum and two with an inoculum obtained from an animal at the late incubation phase, which was positive for WHV DNA by PCR but still devoid of WHV markers. Infection was demonstrated in all four inoculated woodchucks by the appearance at different times of WHV DNA and WHV antigens in both leucocytes and serum. WHV DNA was first detected by PCR either in the serum (two cases) or in leucocytes (two cases). The mean percentage of cells positive for membrane associated WHsAg or WHcAg detected by cytofluorometry were 37%±25 and 17%±15 respectively. After 8 weeks, all inoculated animals were WHsAg positive in serum. These data suggest that PBMC are involved in the early events of hepadnavirus infection. They also show that sera which are positive by PCR for WHV DNA may transmit viral infection even while still seronegative for WHV markers and for WHV DNA by dot blot.     

Correlation of Virus and Host Response Markers with Circulating Immune Complexes during Acute and Chronic Woodchuck Hepatitis Virus Infection

Woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) is an established model for human hepatitis B virus. The kinetics of virus and host responses in serum and liver during acute, self-limited WHV infection in adult woodchucks were studied. Serum WHV DNA and surface antigen (WHsAg) were detected as early as 1 to 3 weeks following experimental infection and peaked between 1 and 5 weeks postinfection. Thereafter, serum WHsAg levels declined rapidly and became undetectable, while WHV DNA levels became undetectable much later, between 4 and 20 weeks postinfection. Decreasing viremia correlated with transient liver injury marked by an increase in serum sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH) levels. Clearance of WHV DNA from serum was associated with the normalization of serum SDH. Circulating immune complexes (CICs) of WHsAg and antibodies against WHsAg (anti-WHs) that correlated temporarily with the peaks in serum viremia and WHs antigenemia were detected. CICs were no longer detected in serum once free anti-WHs became detectable. The detection of CICs around the peak in serum viremia and WHs antigenemia in resolving woodchucks suggests a critical role for the humoral immune response against WHsAg in the early elimination of viral and subviral particles from the peripheral blood. Individual kinetic variation during WHV infections in resolving woodchucks infected with the same WHV inoculum and dose is likely due to the outbred nature of the animals, indicating that the onset and magnitude of the individual immune response determine the intensity of virus inhibition and the timing of virus elimination from serum.     

Failure to detect polyalbumin-binding sites on the woodchuck hepatitis virus surface antigen: implications for the pathogenesis of hepatitis B virus in humans.

Binding sites for polymerized albumin on hepatitis B virus components were reported in human hepatitis B virus chronic carriers predominantly with active viral replication (HB e antigen positive). The presence of comparable albumin-binding sites in the woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) model was examined on WHV components obtained from woodchucks with active viral replication (DNA polymerase positive). Binding sites for polymerized woodchuck serum albumin were not detected on the intact WHV virion, on 22-nm woodchuck hepatitis surface antigen (WHsAg), or on WHsAg polypeptides. Woodchuck albumin was not detected in purified 22-nm WHsAg, and anti-albumin antibodies were not detected in WHV chronic-carrier woodchucks. Our results in the WHV model argue against a role for viral polyalbumin-binding sites in tissue- and host-specific virus infectivity.     

Immunization of Woodchucks with Plasmids Expressing Woodchuck Hepatitis Virus (WHV) Core Antigen and Surface Antigen Suppresses WHV Infection

DNA vaccination can induce humoral and cellular immune response to viral antigens and confer protection to virus infection. In woodchucks, we tested the protective efficacy of immune response to woodchuck hepatitis core antigen (WHcAg) and surface antigen (WHsAg) of woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) elicited by DNA-based vaccination. Plasmids pWHcIm and pWHsIm containing WHV c- or pre-s2/s genes expressed WHcAg and WHsAg in transient transfection assays. Pilot experiments in mice revealed that a single intramuscular injection of 100 μg of plasmid pWHcIm DNA induced an anti-WHcAg titer over 1:300 that was enhanced by boost injections. However, two injections of 100 μg of pWHcIm did not induce detectable anti-WHcAg in woodchucks. With an increase in the dose to 1 mg of pWHcIm per injection, transient anti-WHcAg response and WHcAg-specific proliferation of peripheral mononuclear blood cells (PMBCs) appeared in woodchucks after repeated immunizations. Four woodchucks vaccinated with pWHcIm were challenged with 10⁴ or 10⁵ of the WHV 50% infective dose. They remained negative for markers of WHV replication (WHV DNA and WHsAg) in peripheral blood and developed anti-WHs in week 5 after challenge. In contrast, woodchucks not immunized or immunized with the control vector pcDNA3 developed acute WHV infection. Two woodchucks immunized with 1 mg of pWHsIm developed WHsAg-specific proliferative response of PBMCs but no measurable anti-WHsAg response. A rapid anti-WHsAg response developed during week 2 after virus challenge. Neither woodchuck developed any signs of WHV infection. These data indicate that DNA-based vaccination with WHcAg and WHsAg can elicit immunity to WHV infection.     

Protection of chimpanzees from type B hepatitis by immunization with woodchuck hepatitis virus surface antigen.

Two chimpanzees immunized with woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) surface antigen (WHsAg) developed antibodies cross-reactive with hepatitis B virus (HBV) surface antigen (HBsAg). After challenge with HBV, one animal was completely protected and the other experienced a subclinical infection, without evidence of liver disease. Three woodchucks immunized with HBsAg developed antibodies to HBsAg which did not cross-react with WHsAg. After challenge with WHV, all three woodchucks developed typical acute infections with associated hepatic lesions. Serological studies with the cross-reactive antibodies raised in chimpanzees suggested that the protective epitopes of WHsAg were related to the group a specificity of HBsAg. These studies indicated that cross-protective epitopes are shared by HBV and WHV; however, the humoral response to these epitopes can vary among species.     

T-Cell Response to Woodchuck Hepatitis Virus (WHV) Antigens during Acute Self-Limited WHV Infection and Convalescence and after Viral Challenge

The infection of woodchucks with woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) provides an experimental model to study early immune responses during hepadnavirus infection that cannot be tested in patients. The T-cell response of experimentally WHV-infected woodchucks to WHsAg, rWHcAg, and WHcAg peptides was monitored by observing 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine and [2-³H]adenine incorporation. The first T-cell responses were directed against WHsAg 3 weeks after infection; these were followed by responses to rWHcAg including the immunodominant T-cell epitope of WHcAg (amino acids 97 to 110). Maximal proliferative responses were detected when the animals seroconvered to anti-WHs and anti-WHc (week 6). A decrease in the T-cell response to viral antigens coincided with clearance of viral DNA. Polyclonal rWHcAg-specific T-cell lines were established 6, 12, 18, and 24 weeks postinfection, and their responses to WHcAg peptides were assessed. Five to seven peptides including the immunodominant epitope were recognized throughout the observation period (6 months). At 12 months after infection, T-cell responses to antigens and peptides were not detected. Reactivation of T-cell responses to viral antigens and peptides occurred within 7 days after challenge of animals with WHV. These results demonstrate that a fast and vigorous T-cell response to WHsAg, rWHcAg, and amino acids 97 to 110 of the WHcAg occurs within 3 weeks after WHV infection. The peak of this response was associated with viral clearance and may be crucial for recovery from infection. One year after infection, no proliferation of T cells in response to antigens was observed; however, the WHV-specific T-cell response was reactivated after challenge of woodchucks with WHV and may be responsible for protection against WHV reinfection.     

Combination of DNA Prime – Adenovirus Boost Immunization with Entecavir Elicits Sustained Control of Chronic Hepatitis B in the Woodchuck Model

A potent therapeutic T-cell vaccine may be an alternative treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. Previously, we developed a DNA prime-adenovirus (AdV) boost vaccination protocol that could elicit strong and specific CD8⁺ T-cell responses to woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) core antigen (WHcAg) in mice. In the present study, we first examined whether this new prime-boost immunization could induce WHcAg-specific T-cell responses and effectively control WHV replication in the WHV-transgenic mouse model. Secondly, we evaluated the therapeutic effect of this new vaccination strategy in chronically WHV-infected woodchucks in combination with a potent antiviral treatment. Immunization of WHV-transgenic mice by DNA prime-AdV boost regimen elicited potent and functional WHcAg-specific CD8⁺ T-cell response that consequently resulted in the reduction of the WHV load below the detection limit in more than 70% of animals. The combination therapy of entecavir (ETV) treatment and DNA prime-AdV boost immunization in chronic WHV carriers resulted in WHsAg- and WHcAg-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell responses, which were not detectable in ETV-only treated controls. Woodchucks receiving the combination therapy showed a prolonged suppression of WHV replication and lower WHsAg levels compared to controls. Moreover, two of four immunized carriers remained WHV negative after the end of ETV treatment and developed anti-WHs antibodies. These results demonstrate that the combined antiviral and vaccination approach efficiently elicited sustained immunological control of chronic hepadnaviral infection in woodchucks and may be a new promising therapeutic strategy in patients.     

Apparent helper-independent infection of woodchucks by hepatitis delta virus and subsequent rescue with woodchuck hepatitis virus.

Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) is a subviral agent of humans which is dependent upon hepatitis B virus as a helper for transmission. HDV can be experimentally transmitted to woodchucks by using woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) as the helper. We used this model system to study two types of HDV infections: those of animals already chronically infected with WHV and those of animals without any evidence of prior exposure to WHV. At 5 to 10 days after infection with HDV, liver biopsies of these two groups of animals indicated that around 1% of the hepatocytes were infected (HDV antigen positive). Moreover, similar amounts of replicative forms of HDV RNA were detected. In contrast, by 20 days postinfection, the two groups of animals were quite different in the extent of the HDV infection. The animals chronically infected with WHV showed spread of the infection within the liver and the release of high titers of HDV into the serum. In contrast, the animals not previously exposed to WHV showed a progressive reduction in liver involvement, and at no time up to 165 days postinfection could we detect HDV particles in the serum. However, if these animals were inoculated with a relatively high titer of WHV at either 7 or even 33 days after the HDV infection, HDV viremia was observed. Our data support the interpretation that in these animals, hepatocytes were initially infected in the absence of helper virus, HDV genome replication took place, and ultimately these replicating genomes were rescued by the secondary WHV infection. The observation that HDV can survive in the liver for at least 33 days in the absence of coinfecting helper virus may be relevant to the reemergence of HDV infection following liver transplantation.     

Acute resolving woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) infection is associated with a strong cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response to a single WHV core peptide

Woodchucks infected with woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) are an excellent model for studying acute, self-limited and chronic hepadnaviral infections. Defects in the immunological response leading to chronicity are still unknown. Specific T-helper cell responses to WHV core and surface antigens (WHcAg and WHsAg, respectively) are associated with acute resolving infection; however, they are undetectable in chronic infection. Up to now, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses could not be determined in the woodchuck. In the present study, we detected virus-specific CTL responses by a CD107a degranulation assay. The splenocytes of woodchucks in the postacute phase of WHV infection (18 months postinfection) were isolated and stimulated with overlapping peptides covering the whole WHcAg. After 6 days, the cells were restimulated and stained for CD3 and CD107a. One peptide (c96-110) turned out to be accountable for T-cell expansion and CD107a staining. Later, we applied the optimized degranulation assay to study the kinetics of the T-cell response in acute WHV infection. We found a vigorous T-cell response against peptide c96-110 with peripheral blood cells beginning at the peak of viral load (week 5) and lasting up to 15 weeks postinfection. In contrast, there was no T-cell response against peptide c96-110 detectable in chronically WHV-infected animals. Thus, with this newly established flow cytometric degranulation assay, we detected for the first time virus-specific CTLs and determined one immunodominant epitope of WHcAg in the woodchuck.