四倍体海岛棉LTR反转录转座子的数量与分布

棉花是重要的纤维作物,在四个栽培棉种中,海岛棉纤维品质最优,了解LTR反转录转座子的数量与分布,可以促进海岛棉基因组的研究。通过综合不同方法挖掘海岛棉基因组中的LTR反转录转座子序列,并进行家族归类和数据分析。结果表明海岛棉A亚组和D亚组共有的LTR反转录转座子家族占全部家族的95%,LTR反转录转座子的Copia超家族和Gypsy超家族的分布特征有明显的不同,但相同超家族在相同亚组染色体上则表现出相似的特征。LTR反转录转座子周边基因的GO注释主要富集在结合活性、催化活性和代谢过程等方面。研究结果揭示了LTR反转录转座子在海岛棉染色体上的分布特征及其周边基因的功能富集。     

酵母Ty1和Ty3转座调控机制研究进展

LTR(Long Terminal Repetition, LTR)反转录转座子广泛存在于真核生物界,是逆转录病毒的进化祖先。LTR反转录转座子有两个古老的家族,Ty1/Copia和Ty3/Gypsy。目前关于LTR反转录转座子转座机制及调控机制研究最透彻的是来源于酵母的两个活性转座子Ty1和Ty3。全面综述了Ty1和Ty3的分子生物学机制相关的最新研究进展。系统总结了Ty1和Ty3的结构特征及转座特性,归纳了Ty1和Ty3与宿主共生的调控机制,为进一步了解酵母LTR反转录转座子相关转座调控机制提供参考。     

33种鱼类微型反向重复转座元件鉴定

微型反向重复转座元件(MITEs)是一类短的非自主DNA转座子, 其分布的位置会对宿主产生影响。文章使用生物信息学的方法对无颌类、软骨鱼纲、肉鳍鱼纲和辐鳍鱼纲鱼类基因组进行了MITEs预测, 最终在33种鱼类基因组中鉴定出2433个MITEs家族。文章发现鱼类基因组中MITEs含量存在较大差异(0.11%—21.18%), 并且MITEs含量与鱼类基因组大小呈正相关关系。根据末端重复序列(TIRs)和靶位点重复序列(TSDs)的特征将MITEs分为10个超家族, 其中TC1-Mariner超家族的含量最高。MITEs在鱼类基因组中的插入事件主要发生在4百万年前至今, 大多数物种的MITEs在2百万—0.5百万年前发生了爆发式扩增。鱼类基因组中的MITEs多数插入到基因内部或附近, 这些转座子可能在基因的表达调控方面存在重要作用。     

家蚕LTR逆转录转座子的鉴定、分类及系统发育分析

转座子是真核生物基因组的重要组成成分。为了研究家蚕Bombyx mori长末端重复序列 (long terminal repeat, LTR)逆转录转座子的分类及进化, 本研究采用de novo预测和同源性搜索相结合的方法, 在家蚕基因组中共鉴定出了38个LTR逆转录转座子家族, 序列长度占整个基因组的0.64%, 远小于先前预测的11.8%, 其中有6个家族为本研究的新发现。38个家族中, 26个家族有表达序列标签 (expression sequence tag, EST)证据, 表明这些家族具有潜在的活性。对有EST证据的6个家族和没有EST证据的5个家族用RT-PCR进行了组织表达谱实验, 结果表明这11个家族在一些组织中有表达, 这进一步证实了这些家族具有转录活性, 基于此我们推测家蚕中大部分的LTR逆转录转座子家族很可能具有潜在活性。对转座子的插入时间进行估计, 结果表明绝大部分元件都是最近1百万年内插入到家蚕基因组中的。我们还比较了黑腹果蝇Drosophila melanogaster、 冈比亚按蚊Anopheles gambiae和家蚕B. mori中Ty3/Gypsy超家族分支的差异, 结果表明不同枝在不同昆虫中有着不同的扩张。家蚕中LTR逆转录转座子的鉴定和系统分析有助于我们理解逆转录转座子在昆虫进化中的作用。     

白菜和甘蓝基因组转座子表达及其对基因调控的潜在影响

转座子或转座元件是大多数真核生物基因组的主要组成成分。甘蓝(Brassica oleracea)基因组比白菜(B. rapa)大主要是转座子的扩增差异造成的。然而, 这两个芸薹属近缘物种转座子表达水平以及对基因的调控和功能的影响目前还不清楚。文章对白菜和甘蓝叶、根、茎3个器官的转录组数据进行了初步分析。结果显示, 转座子的表达量很低, 转录组reads中有1%来自转座子的转录本; 转座子的表达存在器官差异, 且不同类别和家族的转座子表达量相差很大, 相同类别和同一家族的转座子在白菜和甘蓝基因组中的表达活性也不相同。进一步鉴定到转录读出的LTR反转座子, 其与下游基因距离小于2 kb的有41个, 小于100 bp的有9个, 这些LTR的转录读出很可能通过正义或反义的转录本激活或干扰下游基因的表达。同时, 具有转录读出的intact LTR比solo LTR具有更强的读出活性。通过深入分析转座子的插入位点发现, 白菜基因组中转座子插入基因内部的频率比甘蓝基因组中的高; 与反转座子相比, DNA转座子更偏向于插入或保留在基因的内含子当中。这些结果为认识转座子对其他蛋白编码基因的影响提供了基础。     

类Tc1转座子研究进展

转座子广泛存在于各种生物基因组中,能在染色体不同位点间转座,并在基因组中大量扩增.转座子的活动能引起生物基因组或基因的重组和变异,加速生物多样性及其进化速率,被视为生物基因组进化的内在驱动.转座子分2类：反转座子和DNA转座子.类Tc1转座子是DNA转座子超级家族中种类最多、分布最广的一类.本文简要概述了类Tc1转座子的结构特征,及其扩增、转座和迸发的机制,并展望了其应用和研究方向.     

原生动物基因组转座元件的研究进展

转座元件是一类广泛分布于真核生物的可移动的遗传因子, 可以引起基因重组和变异, 在物种进化及遗传改良中起着重要作用。针对近年来原生动物全基因组序列中大量发现的转座元件, 文章着重比较了转座元件在锥虫、利什曼虫、微孢子虫、变形虫和滴虫基因组序列中的存在种类、分布特征及其功能意义。原生动物转座元件以LINE 和SINE为主, 其次是DNA转座元件和LTR反转座元件, 部分转座元件在高A+T含量区富集, 预示着转座元件与基因组序列A+T含量有着紧密联系。根据不同种微孢子虫基因组之间转座元件的差异, 推测在微孢子虫基因组进化过程中, 至少经历了一次转座元件的丢失事件。最后对转座元件在原生动物寄生虫的进一步研究和应用作了展望。     

植物基因组中的非LTR反转录转座子SINEs和LINEs

反转录转座子是基因组进化的推动者之一。分为LTR和非LTR两种类型。前者是真核基因组的主要组分,结构和转座方式与逆转录病毒类似。后者是最初发现于动物基因组新近发现在植物基因组中也广泛存在的新型重复序列,包括LINEs(long interspersed nuclear elements)和SINEs(short interspersed nuclear elements)两个亚型。它们大多因自身或受宿主基因组的调控而失去转座活性。其转座机理目前还不十分清楚,推测LINEs可以自主转座,SINEs依赖其他转座子被动转座。种系分析认为LINEs可能是最古老的反转录转座子,SINEs的起源未知。文章对以上内容进行了归纳和讨论。     

ITm活性转座子及其结构特征分析

ITm超家族是真核生物基因组中分布最广泛的DNA转座子家族之一,它们以DNA为媒介,通过"剪切–粘贴"机制在基因组中不断跳跃,引起基因组的重组与突变。随着对ITm转座子的深入研究,许多ITm转座子逐渐成为基因克隆、基因表达及其功能研究的重要工具。该文对活性ITm转座子作了较为全面的研究,并对其结构、拷贝数、分布以及转座特性进行了系统归纳,分析了活性ITm转座子螺旋–转角–螺旋(helix-turn-helix,HTH)结构,天冬氨酸–天冬氨酸–天冬氨酸/谷氨酸(Asp-Asp-Asp/Glu,DDD/E)催化结构域、Linker、核定位信号(nuclear localization sequence,NLS)及末端反向重复序列(terminal inverted repeats,TIRs)的序列特征。结果表明,自主转座活性的ITm转座子必须具备完整的转座酶及TIRs,上述结构及序列的突变均会不同程度的对转座子活性产生影响。这为活性ITm转座子的鉴定及功能分析奠定了重要基础,同时,也为人工调控ITm转座子转座活性提供了理论依据。     

植物LTR反转录转座子的研究进展

反转录转座子是真核生物基因组中普遍存在的一类可移动的遗传因子,它们以RNA为媒介,在基因组中不断自我复制。在高等植物中,反转录转座子是基因组的重要成分之一。反转录转座子可以分为5大类型,其中以长末端重复（LTR）类型报道较多。LTR类型由于其首尾具有长末端重复序列,内部含有PBS、PPT、GAG和POL开放阅读框、TSD等结构,可以采用生物信息学软件进行预测。LTR反转录转座子的活性受到自身甲基化和环境因素的影响,DNA甲基化抑制反转录转座子转座,而外界环境的刺激能够激活转座子,从而影响插入位点周边基因的表达。同时由于LTR反转录转座子在植物中普遍存在,丰富的拷贝数以及多态性为新型分子标记（RBIP、SSAP、IRAP、REMAP）的开发提供了良好的素材。该文对近年来国内外有关植物反转录转座子的类型、结构特征、 LTR反转录转座子的活性及其影响因素、 LTR反转录转座子的预测以及标记开发等方面的研究进展进行综述。     

高等植物转座子的超家族及其应用(综述)

转座子是广泛存在于高等植物基因组中的可移动的DNA分子。文中主要介绍高等植物的各种转座子超家族,包括LTR类反转录转座子、hAT、CACTA因子、Mutator和MULEs、Tc1/mariner、微小反向重复转座子MITEs等;另外还阐述了植物转座子标签体系和筛选方法,以及转座子在生物多样性与遗传连锁分析、植物基因组学研究与植物性状改良方面中的应用。     

Comparative genomics of duplicate γ-glutamyl transferase genes in teleosts: medaka (Oryzias latipes), stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), green spotted pufferfish (Tetraodon nigroviridis), fugu (Takifugu rubripes), and zebrafish (Danio rerio)

The availability of multiple teleost (bony fish) genomes is providing unprecedented opportunities to understand the diversity and function of gene duplication events using comparative genomics. Here we examine multiple paralogous genes of γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT) in several distantly related teleost species including medaka, stickleback, green spotted pufferfish, fugu, and zebrafish. Through mining genome databases, we have identified multiple GGT orthologs. Duplicate (paralogous) GGT sequences for GGT1 (GGT1 a and b), GGTL1 (GGTL1 a and b), and GGTL3 (GGTL3 a and b) were identified for each species. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that GGTs are ancient proteins conserved across most metazoan phyla and those paralogous GGTs in teleosts likely arose from the serial 3R genome duplication events. A third GGTL1 gene (GGTL1c) was found in green spotted pufferfish; however, this gene is not present in medaka, stickleback, or fugu. Similarly, one or both paralogs of GGTL3 appear to have been lost in green spotted pufferfish, fugu, and zebrafish. Syntenic relationships were highly maintained between duplicated teleost chromosomes, among teleosts and across ray-finned (Actinopterygii) and lobe-finned (Sarcopterygii) species. To assess subfunction partitioning, six medaka GGT genes were cloned and assessed for developmental and tissue-specific expression. On the basis of these data, we propose a modification of the "duplication-degeneration-complementation" model of subfunction partitioning where quantitative differences rather than absolute differences in gene expression are observed between gene paralogs. Our results demonstrate that multiple GGT genes have been retained within teleost genomes. Questions remain, however, regarding the functional roles of multiple GGTs in these species.     

植物反转录转座子及其在功能基因组学中的应用

高等植物中的反转录转座子是构成植物基因组的重要成分之一.它分病毒家族和非病毒家族两类,病毒家族包括反转录病毒和类似于反转录病毒的非病毒转座子,病毒家族中的反转录转座子可再细分为Ty3-gypsy类和Ty1-copia类;非病毒家族可细分为LINE类和SINE类.正常情况下大部分反转录转座子不具有活性,某些生物或非生物因素胁迫可激活部分反转录转座子转座.反转录转座子自身编码反转录酶进行转录,以"拷贝-粘贴"的转座模式导致基因组扩增和进化.具有活性的反转录转座子通过插入产生新的突变,可作为一种基因标签技术,应用于功能基因组学研究,并成为研究植物基因功能和表达的重要技术平台.本文综述了近几年来在植物反转录转座子方面的研究进展,主要包括植物反转录转座子的结构、特征、活性及其对基因组的影响和它们在功能基因组学中的应用.     

Unexpected diversity and differential success of DNA transposons in four species of entamoeba protozoans

We report the first comprehensive analysis of transposable element content in the compact genomes (approximately 20 Mb) of four species of Entamoeba unicellular protozoans for which draft sequences are now available. Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba dispar, two human parasites, have many retrotransposons, but few DNA transposons. In contrast, the reptile parasite Entamoeba invadens and the free-living Entamoeba moshkovskii contain few long interspersed elements but harbor diverse and recently amplified populations of DNA transposons. Representatives of three DNA transposase superfamilies (hobo/Activator/Tam3, Mutator, and piggyBac) were identified for the first time in a protozoan species in addition to a variety of members of a fourth superfamily (Tc1/mariner), previously reported only from ciliates and Trichomonas vaginalis among protozoans. The diversity of DNA transposons and their differential amplification among closely related species with similar compact genomes are discussed in the context of the biology of Entamoeba protozoans.     

Dynamics and differential proliferation of transposable elements during the evolution of the B and A genomes of wheat

Transposable elements (TEs) constitute >80% of the wheat genome but their dynamics and contribution to size variation and evolution of wheat genomes (Triticum and Aegilops species) remain unexplored. In this study, 10 genomic regions have been sequenced from wheat chromosome 3B and used to constitute, along with all publicly available genomic sequences of wheat, 1.98 Mb of sequence (from 13 BAC clones) of the wheat B genome and 3.63 Mb of sequence (from 19 BAC clones) of the wheat A genome. Analysis of TE sequence proportions (as percentages), ratios of complete to truncated copies, and estimation of insertion dates of class I retrotransposons showed that specific types of TEs have undergone waves of differential proliferation in the B and A genomes of wheat. While both genomes show similar rates and relatively ancient proliferation periods for the Athila retrotransposons, the Copia retrotransposons proliferated more recently in the A genome whereas Gypsy retrotransposon proliferation is more recent in the B genome. It was possible to estimate for the first time the proliferation periods of the abundant CACTA class II DNA transposons, relative to that of the three main retrotransposon superfamilies. Proliferation of these TEs started prior to and overlapped with that of the Athila retrotransposons in both genomes. However, they also proliferated during the same periods as Gypsy and Copia retrotransposons in the A genome, but not in the B genome. As estimated from their insertion dates and confirmed by PCR-based tracing analysis, the majority of differential proliferation of TEs in B and A genomes of wheat (87 and 83%, respectively), leading to rapid sequence divergence, occurred prior to the allotetraploidization event that brought them together in Triticum turgidum and Triticum aestivum, <0.5 million years ago. More importantly, the allotetraploidization event appears to have neither enhanced nor repressed retrotranspositions. We discuss the apparent proliferation of TEs as resulting from their insertion, removal, and/or combinations of both evolutionary forces.     

Low diversity,activity, and density of transposable elements in five avian genomes

In this study, we conducted the activity, diversity, and density analysis of transposable elements (TEs) across five avian genomes (budgerigar, chicken, turkey, medium ground finch, and zebra finch) to explore the potential reason of small genome sizes of birds. We found that these avian genomes exhibited low density of TEs by about 10% of genome coverages and low diversity of TEs with the TE landscapes dominated by CR1 and ERV elements, and contrasting proliferation dynamics both between TE types and between species were observed across the five avian genomes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that CR1 clade was more diverse in the family structure compared with R2 clade in birds; avian ERVs were classified into four clades (alpha, beta, gamma, and ERV-L) and belonged to three classes of ERV with an uneven distributed in these lineages. The activities of DNA and SINE TEs were very low in the evolution history of avian genomes; most LINEs and LTRs were ancient copies with a substantial decrease of activity in recent, with only LTRs and LINEs in chicken and zebra finch exhibiting weak activity in very recent, and very few TEs were intact; however, the recent activity may be underestimated due to the sequencing/assembly technologies in some species. Overall, this study demonstrates low diversity, activity, and density of TEs in the five avian species; highlights the differences of TEs in these lineages; and suggests that the current and recent activity of TEs in avian genomes is very limited, which may be one of the reasons of small genome sizes in birds.