Erythrocytes possess an intrinsic barrier to nitric oxide consumption

It has been reported that free hemoglobin (Hb) reacts with NO at an extremely high rate (K(Hb) approximately 10(7) M(-1) s(-1)) and that the red blood cell (RBC) membrane is highly permeable to NO. RBCs, however, react with NO 500-1000 times slower. This reduction of NO reaction rate by RBCs has been attributed to the extracellular diffusion limitation. To test whether additional limitations are also important, we designed a competition test, which allows the extracellular diffusion limitation to be distinguished from transmembrane or intracellular resistance. This test exploited the competition between free Hb and RBCs for NO generated in a homogenous phase by an NO donor. If the extracellular diffusion resistance is negligible, then the results would follow a kinetic model that assumes homogenous reaction without extracellular diffusion limitation. In this case, the measured effective reaction rate constant, K(RBC), would remain invariant of the hematocrit, extracellular-free Hb concentration, and NO donor concentration. Results show that the K(RBC) approaches a constant only when the hematocrit is greater than 10%, suggesting that at higher hematocrit, the extracellular diffusion resistance is negligible. Under such a condition, the NO consumption by RBCs is still 500-1000 times slower than that by free Hb. This result suggests that intrinsic RBC factors, such as transmembrane diffusion limitation or intracellular mechanisms, exist to reduce the NO consumption by RBCs.     

Membrane-bound hemoglobin as a marker of oxidative injury in adult and neonatal red blood cells

A comparative study of the effect of hydrogen peroxide on adult and neonatal red blood cell (RBC) membrane protein composition has been carried out. The results indicate that (a) the native neonatal RBC membranes contain higher levels of membrane-bound hemoglobin (MBHb) than the adult RBC membranes. (b) The content of MBHb increases when RBCs are incubated with increasing concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), more so in neonatal than in adult RBCs; however, neonatal RBC membrane proteins are less susceptible to H2O2 oxidation than adult ones. This could be attributed to the fact that Hb F, which is more susceptible to oxidation than Hb A, adds to the reduction potential of neonatal RBC (in which it is present in large amounts) and partially protects neonatal membrane proteins against oxidant stress compared to Hb A in adult RBC. (c) In both neonatal and adult RBCs, Spectrin 1 is relatively more susceptible to oxidant stress than spectrin 2, and spectrins in adult RBC are more labile for peroxidation than the spectrins in neonatal RBC. (d) Based on electrophoretic studies with and without reduction of membranes with mercaptoethanol, we have classified two types of MBHb: Type I is adsorbed to membrane by noncovalent interactions and Type II MBHb is chemically crosslinked to membrane components by disulfide bridges; the content of both these types increases when RBCs are incubated with increasing concentrations of H2O2. (e) Band 6 protein is present in higher amounts in neonatal than in adult RBC membranes. (f) Since the total content of MBHb increases linearly with the level of oxidant stress, we suggest that it could be used as a marker for oxygen radical-induced injury to tissues.     

Mechanism of oxidative damage to fish red blood cells by ozone

The present study was conducted to elucidate the adverse effects of ozone exposure on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) red blood cells (RBCs). We evaluated whether hemoglobin (Hb) or Hb-derived free iron could participate in the RBC damage using an in vitro ozone exposure system. Ozone exposure induced hemolysis, formation of methemoglobin, and RBC membrane lipid peroxidation. This RBC damage was not suppressed by the addition of a specific iron chelator (deferoxamine mesilate) to the medium but was suppressed by carbon monoxide (CO) treatment before ozone exposure. Generation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in RBC was observed upon ozone exposure but was significantly suppressed by CO treatment before ozone exposure. Thus the Hb status (i.e., Hb redox condition) and H2O2 generation in RBC should play important roles in mediating RBC damage by ozone exposure. In other words, neither ozone nor its derivative directly attacked from the outside of the cell, but ozone that penetrated through the membrane derived the reactive oxygen species from Hb inside of the cell.     

In Vivo Volume and Hemoglobin Dynamics of Human Red Blood Cells

Human red blood cells (RBCs) lose ∼30% of their volume and ∼20% of their hemoglobin (Hb) content during their ∼100-day lifespan in the bloodstream. These observations are well-documented, but the mechanisms for these volume and hemoglobin loss events are not clear. RBCs shed hemoglobin-containing vesicles during their life in the circulation, and this process is thought to dominate the changes in the RBC physical characteristics occurring during maturation. We combine theory with single-cell measurements to investigate the impact of vesiculation on the reduction in volume, Hb mass, and membrane. We show that vesicle shedding alone is sufficient to explain membrane losses but not volume or Hb losses. We use dry mass measurements of human RBCs to validate the models and to propose that additional unknown mechanisms control volume and Hb reduction and are responsible for ∼90% of the observed reduction. RBC population characteristics are used in the clinic to monitor and diagnose a wide range of conditions including malnutrition, inflammation, and cancer. Quantitative characterization of cellular maturation processes may help in the early detection of clinical conditions where maturation patterns are altered.     

Red blood cell membrane fluctuations and shape controlled by ATP-induced cytoskeletal defects

We show theoretically how adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP)-induced dynamic dissociations of spectrin filaments (from each other and from the membrane) in the cytoskeleton network of red blood cells (RBC) can explain in a unified manner both the measured fluctuation amplitude as well as the observed shape transformations as a function of intracellular ATP concentration. Static defects can be induced by external stresses such as those present when RBCs pass through small capillaries. We suggest that the partially freed actin at these defect sites may explain the activation of the CFTR membrane-bound protein and the subsequent release of ATP by RBCs subjected to deformations. Our theoretical predictions can be tested by experiments that measure the correlation between variations in the binding of actin to spectrin, the activity of CFTR, and the amount of ATP released.     

Schistosomula of Schistosoma mansoni use lysophosphatidylcholine to lyse adherent human red blood cells and immobilize red cell membrane components

Human red blood cells (RBCs) adhere to and are lysed by schistosomula of Schistosoma mansoni. We have investigated the mechanism of RBC lysis by comparing the dynamic properties of transmembrane protein and lipid probes in adherent ghost membranes with those in control RBCs and in RBCs treated with various membrane perturbants. Fluorescence photobleaching recovery was used to measure the lateral mobility of two integral membrane proteins, glycophorin and band 3, and two lipid analogues, fluorescein phosphatidylethanolamine (Fl-PE) and carbocyanine dyes, in RBCs and ghosts adherent to schistosomula. Adherent ghosts manifested 95-100% immobilization of both membrane proteins and 45-55% immobilization of both lipid probes. In separate experiments, diamide-induced cross-linking of RBC cytoskeletal proteins slowed transmembrane protein diffusion by 30-40%, without affecting either transmembrane protein fractional mobility or lipid probe lateral mobility. Wheat germ agglutinin- and polylysine-induced cross-linking of glycophorin at the extracellular surface caused 80-95% immobilization of the transmembrane proteins, without affecting the fractional mobility of the lipid probe. Egg lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPC) induced both lysis of RBCs and a concentration-dependent decrease in the lateral mobility of glycophorin, band 3, and Fl-PE in ghost membranes. At a concentration of 8.4 micrograms/ml, lysoPC caused a pattern of protein and lipid immobilization in RBC ghosts identical to that in ghosts adherent to schistosomula. Schistosomula incubated with labeled palmitate released lysoPC into the culture medium at a rate of 1.5 fmol/h per 10(3) organisms. These data suggest that lysoPC is transferred from schistosomula to adherent RBCs, causing their lysis.     

Nuclear magnetic resonance and oxygen affinity study of cesium binding in human erythrocytes.

We investigated the interaction of the cesium ion (Cs(+)) with the anionic intracellular components of human red blood cells (RBCs); the components studied included 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG), ADP, ATP, inorganic phosphate (P(i)), carbonmonoxy hemoglobin (COHb), and RBC membranes. We used spin-lattice (T(1)) and spin-spin (T(2)) (133)Cs NMR relaxation measurements to probe Cs(+) binding, and we found that Cs(+) bound more strongly to binding sites in BPG and in RBC membranes than in any other intracellular component in RBCs at physiologic concentrations. By using James-Noggle plots, we obtained Cs(+) binding constants per binding site in BPG (66 +/- 8 M(-1)), ADP (19 +/- 1 M(-1)), ATP (25 +/- 3 M(-1)), and RBC membranes (55 +/- 2 M(-1)) from the observed T(1) values. We also studied the effect of Cs(+) on the oxygen (O(2)) affinity of purified Hb and of Hb in intact RBCs in the absence and in the presence of BPG. In the absence of BPG, the O(2) affinity of Hb decreased upon addition of Cs(+). However, in the presence of BPG, the O(2) affinity of Hb increased upon addition of Cs(+). The O(2) affinity of Cs(+)-loaded human RBCs was larger than that of Cs(+)-free cells at the same BPG level. (31)P NMR studies on the pH dependence of the interaction between BPG and Hb indicated that the presence of Cs(+) resulted in a smaller fraction of BPG available to bind to the cleft of deoxyHb. Our NMR and O(2) affinity data indicate that a strong binding site for Cs(+) in human RBCs is BPG. A partial mechanism for Cs(+) toxicity might arise from competition between Cs(+) and deoxyHb for BPG, thereby increasing oxygenation of Hb in RBCs, and thus decreasing the ability of RBCs to give up oxygen in tissues. The presence of Cs(+) at 12.5 mM in intact human RBCs containing BPG at normal concentrations did not, however, alter significantly the O(2) affinity of Hb, thus ruling out the possibility of Cs(+)-BPG interactions accounting for Cs(+) toxicity in this cell type.     

Estimation of nitric oxide concentration in blood for different rates of generation. Evidence that intravascular nitric oxide levels are too low to exert physiological effects

Endothelium-derived nitric oxide (NO) is a potent vasodilator in the cardiovascular system. Several lines of experimental evidence suggest that NO or NO equivalents may also be generated in the blood. However, blood contains a large amount of hemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells (RBCs). The RBC-encapsulated Hb can react very quickly with NO, which is only limited by the rate of NO diffusion into the RBCs. It is unclear what the possible NO concentration levels in blood are and how the NO diffusion coefficient (D) and the permeability (Pm) of RBC membrane to NO affect the level of NO concentration. In this study, a steady-state concentration experimental method combined with a spherical diffusion model are presented for determining D and Pm and examining the effect of NO generation rate (V0) and hematocrit (Hct) on NO concentration. It was determined that Pm is 4.5 +/- 1.5 cm/s and D is 3410 +/- 50 microm2/s at 37 degrees C. Simulations based on experimental parameters show that, when the rate of NO formation is as high as 100 nm/s, the maximal NO concentration in blood is below 0.012 nM at Pm = 4.5 cm/s and Hct = 45%. Thus, it is unlikely that NO is directly exported or generated from the RBC as an intravascular signaling molecule, because its concentration would be too low to exert a physiological role. Furthermore, our results suggest that, if RBCs export NO bioactivity, this would be through NO-derived species that can release or form NO rather than NO itself.     

Red Blood Cells: Centerpiece in the Evolution of the Vertebrate Circulatory System

All vertebrates except cold-water ice fish transport oxygenvia hemoglobin packaged in red blood cells (RBCs). VertebrateRBCs vary in size by thirtyfold. Differences in RBC size havebeen known for over a century, but the functional significanceof RBC size remains unknown. One hypothesis is that large RBCsare a primitive character. Agnathans have larger RBCs than domammals. However, the largest RBCs are found in urodele amphibianswhich is inconsistent with the hypothesis that large RBCs areprimitive. Another possibility is that small RBCs increase bloodoxygen transport capacity. Blood hemoglobin concentration ([Hb])and mean RBC hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) increase from Agnathato birds and mammals. However, the changes in [Hb] and MCHCdo not parallel changes in RBC size. In addition, RBC size doesnot affect blood viscosity. Thus, there is no clear link betweenRBC size and oxygen transport capacity. We hypothesize thatRBC size attends changes in capillary diameter. This hypothesisis based on the following observations. First, RBC width averages25% larger than capillary diameter which insures cell deformationduring capillary flow. Functionally, RBC deformation minimizesdiffusion limitations to gas exchange. Second, smaller capillariesare associated with increased potential for diffusive gas exchange.However, smaller capillaries result in higher resistances toblood flow which requires higher blood pressures. We proposethat the large capillary diameters and large RBCs in urodelesreflect the evolutionary development of a pulmonary vascularsupply. The large capillaries reduced systemic vascular resistancesenabling a single ventricular heart to supply blood to two vascularcircuits, systemic and pulmonary, without developing high pressureson the pulmonary side. The large RBCs preserved diffusive gasexchange efficiency in the large capillaries.     

Computational Analysis of Dynamic Interaction of Two Red Blood Cells in a Capillary

The dynamic interaction of two red blood cells (RBCs) in a capillary is investigated computationally by the two-fluid model, including their deformable motion and interaction. For characterization of the deformation, the RBC membrane is treated as a curved two-dimensional shell with finite thickness by the shell model, and allowed to undergo the stretching strain and bending deformation. Moreover, a Morse potential is adopted to model the intercellular interaction for the aggregation behavior, which is characterized as the weak attraction at far distance and strong repulsion at near distance. For validation of the present technique, the dynamic interaction of two RBCs in static blood plasma is simulated firstly, where the RBCs aggregate slowly until a balanced configuration is achieved between the deformation and aggregation forces. The balanced configuration is in good agreement with the results reported previously. Three important effects on the dynamic behavior of RBCs are then analyzed, and they are the initial RBC shape, RBC deformability, and the intercellular interaction strength. It is found that the RBC is less deformed into a well-known parachute shape when the initial RBC shape is larger. Similarly, if the elastic shear modulus and bending stiffness of RBC membrane increase, the RBC resistance to deformation becomes higher, such that the RBC is less deformed. The simulation results also demonstrate that the RBC deformability strongly depends on the intercellular interaction strength. The RBCs deform more easily as the intercellular interaction strength increases.     

The effects of cholesterol oxidation products in sickle and normal red blood cell membranes.

The oxysterol content in normal and sickle red blood cell (RBC) membranes was assessed using thin-layer chromatography and capillary gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Several more oxysterols were present in sickle RBCs compared to normal RBCs. Sickle RBC membranes had a higher concentration of 5 alpha,6 alpha-epoxycholesterol, 5 alpha-cholestane-3 beta,5,6 beta-triol, 7-ketocholesterol and 19-hydroxycholesterol than normal RBC membranes. The increased oxysterols in sickle RBC may be an effect of the increased oxidative stress which occurs in sickle RBC membranes. Physical characteristics of normal and sickle RBC membrane ghosts with and without inserted oxysterols were examined by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The data are consistent with a greater sterol content in sickle cells compared to normal RBC membranes, and a possible oxysterol-cholesterol synergism.     

Effects of chitooligosaccharides on human red blood cell morphology and membrane protein structure

Recent studies of chitosan have increased the interest in its conversion to chitooligosaccharides (COSs) because these compounds are water-soluble and have potential use in several biomedical applications. Furthermore, such oligomers may be more advantageous than chitosans because of their much higher absorption profiles at the intestinal level, which permit their facilitated access to systemic circulation and potential distribution throughout the entire human body. In that perspective, it is important to clarify their effect on blood further, namely, on human red blood cells (RBCs). The aim of this work was thus to study the effect of two COS mixtures with different molecular weight (MW) ranges, <3 and <5 kDa, at various concentrations (5.0-0.005 mg/mL) on human RBCs. The interactions of these two mixtures with RBC membrane proteins and with hemoglobin were assessed, and the RBC morphology and surface structure were analyzed by optical microscopy (OM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). In the presence of either COS mixture, no significant hemolysis was observed; however, at COS concentrations >0.1 mg/mL, changes in membrane binding hemoglobin were observed. Membrane protein changes were also observed with increasing COS concentration, including a reduction in both alpha- and beta-spectrin and in band 3 protein, and the development of three new protein bands: peroxiredoxin 2, calmodulin, and hemoglobin chains. Morphologic evaluation by OM showed that at high concentrations COSs interact with RBCs, leading to RBC adhesion, aggregation, or both. An increase in the roughness of the RBC surface with increasing COS concentration was observed by AFM. Overall, these findings suggest that COS damage to RBCs was dependent on the COS MW and concentration, and significant damage resulted from either a higher MW or a greater concentration (>0.1 mg/mL).     

Mechanisms of slower nitric oxide uptake by red blood cells and other hemoglobin-containing vesicles

Nitric oxide (NO) acts as a smooth muscle relaxation factor and plays a crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis. NO is scavenged rapidly by hemoglobin (Hb). However, under normal physiological conditions, the encapsulation of Hb inside red blood cells (RBCs) significantly retards NO scavenging, permitting NO to reach the smooth muscle. The rate-limiting factors (diffusion of NO to the RBC surface, through the RBC membrane or inside of the RBC) responsible for this retardation have been the subject of much debate. Knowing the relative contribution of each of these factors is important for several reasons including optimization of the development of blood substitutes where Hb is contained within phospholipid vesicles. We have thus performed experiments of NO uptake by erythrocytes and microparticles derived from erythrocytes and conducted simulations of these data as well as that of others. We have included extracellular diffusion (that is, diffusion of the NO to the membrane) and membrane permeability, in addition to intracellular diffusion of NO, in our computational models. We find that all these mechanisms may modulate NO uptake by membrane-encapsulated Hb and that extracellular diffusion is the main rate-limiting factor for phospholipid vesicles and erythrocytes. In the case of red cell microparticles, we find a major role for membrane permeability. These results are consistent with prior studies indicating that extracellular diffusion of several gas ligands is also rate-limiting for erythrocytes, with some contribution of a low membrane permeability.     

A study of the dynamic properties of the human red blood cell membrane using quasi-elastic light-scattering spectroscopy.

A quasi-elastic light-scattering (QELS) microscope spectrometer was used to study the dynamic properties of the membrane/cytoskeleton of individual human red blood cells (RBCs). QELS is a spectroscopic technique that measures intensity fluctuations of laser light scattered from a sample. The intensity fluctuations were analyzed using power spectra and the intensity autocorrelation function, g(2)(tau), which was approximated with a single exponential. The value of the correlation time, Tcorr, was used for comparing results. Motion of the RBC membrane/cytoskeleton was previously identified as the source of the QELS signal from the RBC (R. B. Tishler and F. D. Carlson, 1987. Biophys. J. 51:993-997), and additional data supporting that conclusion are presented. Similar results were obtained from anucleate mammalian RBCs that have structures similar to that of the human RBC, but not for morphologically distinct, nucleated RBCs. The effect of altering the physical properties of the cytoplasm and the membrane/cytoskeleton was also studied. Osmotically increasing the cytoplasmic viscosity led to significant increases in Tcorr. Increasing the membrane cholesterol content and increasing the intracellular calcium content both led to decreased deformability of the human RBC. In both cases, the modified cells with decreased deformability showed an increase in Tcorr, demonstrating that QELS could measure biochemically induced changes of the membrane/cytoskeleton. Physiological changes were measured in studies of age-separated RBC populations which showed that Tcorr was increased in the older, less deformable cells.     

Structure-dependent and receptor-independent increase in osmotic fragility of rat erythrocytes by short-chain fatty acids

We examined short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) with 1 (C1) to 5 (C5) carbon atoms for osmotic fragility (OF) in isolated red blood cells (RBCs) in rats. The RBCs were used as prototypical plasma membrane model. The dense packed RBC was incubated in a phosphate-NaCl buffer solution containing each SCFA at 0 to 100 mM. The RBC suspensions were transferred into the OF test tubes containing NaCl from 0.2 to 0.9%. The hemoglobin concentration was determined and the EC50 in hemolysis was calculated. The OF in RBCs was dose-dependently increased by exposure to SCFAs, except for C1, with an increasing number of carbon atoms. Branched-chain fatty acids (isomers of C4 and C5) have a smaller effect on OF than straight-chain fatty acids (C4 and C5). The SCFA-induced increases in OF were not affected by pretreatment of RBCs with trypsin. The response of the RBC membrane to SCFAs depends on their concentration, carbon chain length and chain structure (straight or branched). The SCFAs probably disturb the lipid bilayer of the RBC membrane and result in a decrease in osmotic resistance. The plasma membrane in rat RBCs could respond to the structure of the SCFAs in detail by using the OF as an indicator.     

Red blood cells prevent inhibition of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction by nitrite in isolated, perfused rat lungs

Nitrite reduction to nitric oxide (NO) may be potentiated by a nitrite reductase activity of deoxyHb and contribute to systemic hypoxic vasodilation. The effect of nitrite on the pulmonary circulation has not been well characterized. We explored the effect of nitrite on hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) and the role of the red blood cell (RBC) in nitrite reduction and nitrite-mediated vasodilation. As to method, isolated rat lungs were perfused with buffer, or buffer with RBCs, and subjected to repeated hypoxic challenges, with or without nitrite. As a result, in buffer-perfused lungs, HPV was reduced at nitrite concentrations of 7 muM and above. Nitrite inhibition of HPV was prevented by excess free Hb and RBCs, suggesting that vasodilation was mediated by free NO. Nitrite-inhibition of HPV was not potentiated by mild acidosis (pH = 7.2) or xanthine oxidase activity. RBCs at 15% but not 1% hematocrit prevented inhibition of HPV by nitrite (maximum nitrite concentration of approximately 35 muM) independent of perfusate Po(2). Degradation of nitrite was accelerated by hypoxia in the presence of RBCs but not during buffer perfusion. In conclusion, low micromolar concentrations of nitrite inhibit HPV in buffer-perfused lungs and when RBC concentration is subphysiological. This effect is lost when RBC concentration approaches physiological levels, despite enhanced nitrite degradation in the presence of RBCs. These data suggest that, although deoxyHb may generate NO from nitrite, insufficient NO escapes the RBC to cause vasodilation in the pulmonary circulation under the dynamic conditions of blood flow through the lungs and that RBCs are net scavengers of NO.     

Structure-dependent and receptor-independent increase in osmotic fragility of rat erythrocytes by short-chain fatty acids

We examined short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) with 1 (C1) to 5 (C5) carbon atoms for osmotic fragility (OF) in isolated red blood cells (RBCs) in rats. The RBCs were used as prototypical plasma membrane model. The dense packed RBC was incubated in a phosphate-NaCl buffer solution containing each SCFA at 0 to 100 mM. The RBC suspensions were transferred into the OF test tubes containing NaCl from 0.2 to 0.9%. The hemoglobin concentration was determined and the EC50 in hemolysis was calculated. The OF in RBCs was dose-dependently increased by exposure to SCFAs, except for C1, with an increasing number of carbon atoms. Branched-chain fatty acids (isomers of C4 and C5) have a smaller effect on OF than straight-chain fatty acids (C4 and C5). The SCFA-induced increases in OF were not affected by pretreatment of RBCs with trypsin. The response of the RBC membrane to SCFAs depends on their concentration, carbon chain length and chain structure (straight or branched). The SCFAs probably disturb the lipid bilayer of the RBC membrane and result in a decrease in osmotic resistance. The plasma membrane in rat RBCs could respond to the structure of the SCFAs in detail by using the OF as an indicator.     

Spatially-resolved eigenmode decomposition of red blood cells membrane fluctuations questions the role of ATP in flickering

Red blood cells (RBCs) present unique reversible shape deformability, essential for both function and survival, resulting notably in cell membrane fluctuations (CMF). These CMF have been subject of many studies in order to obtain a better understanding of these remarkable biomechanical membrane properties altered in some pathological states including blood diseases. In particular the discussion over the thermal or metabolic origin of the CMF has led in the past to a large number of investigations and modeling. However, the origin of the CMF is still debated. In this article, we present an analysis of the CMF of RBCs by combining digital holographic microscopy (DHM) with an orthogonal subspace decomposition of the imaging data. These subspace components can be reliably identified and quantified as the eigenmode basis of CMF that minimizes the deformation energy of the RBC structure. By fitting the observed fluctuation modes with a theoretical dynamic model, we find that the CMF are mainly governed by the bending elasticity of the membrane and that shear and tension elasticities have only a marginal influence on the membrane fluctations of the discocyte RBC. Further, our experiments show that the role of ATP as a driving force of CMF is questionable. ATP, however, seems to be required to maintain the unique biomechanical properties of the RBC membrane that lead to thermally excited CMF.