电磁场暴露海马神经元自由基和胞内Ca2+的变化

电磁场对健康影响的研究包括流行病调查、人体与动物、细胞、生化与分子生物、生物物理等5个层次,电磁生物效应最初是通过物理作用产生化学反应,继而产生后续生物反应.自由基、电磁能量和生物钙是分属于化学、物理学和生物学的3个概念,研究它们之间的关系对于认识电磁生物效应的原初作用具有意义.选择海马神经元,观察在0.1mT、0.5mT和1.0mT电磁场暴露48h,海马神经元ROS水平和胞内Ca2+浓度的变化.实验结果表明:暴露于0.1mT,0.5mT和1.0mT电磁场海马神经元的ROS水平和Ca2+浓度都比对照组有显著性提高(P<0.01).暴露于0.1mT和0.5mT电磁场的ROS水平和暴露于0.1mT电磁场的Ca2+浓度与自由基清除剂+电磁场(Trolox+EMF)组比较没有差异(P>0.05),暴露于1.0mT电磁场的ROS水平和暴露于0.5mT和1.0mT电磁场的Ca2+浓度比Trolox+EMF组有显著性提高(P<0.01).表明电磁场可以促进细胞自由基的产生,并且ROS水平与胞内Ca2+浓度有正相关性.     

非损伤微测技术实时检测海马脑片跨膜钙离子流

脑内β-淀粉样蛋白(amyloid-βprotein,Aβ)的聚集是阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)的重要病理特征。Aβ的神经毒性作用机制与其扰乱神经元Ca~(2+)稳态有密切关系。非损伤微测技术(non-invasive micro-test technique,NMT)是近年发展起来的一种利用Fick第一扩散定律和Nernst方程,通过非接触方式检测膜外扩散电位获取离子跨膜流速的最新技术手段。本研究在C57BL/6小鼠海马脑片,利用NMT首次检测了Aβ对谷氨酸(Glu)诱发的Ca~(2+)内流以及细胞外低钙引起的Ca~(2+)外排的影响,并初步探讨了Aβ扰乱神经元Ca~(2+)稳态的相关机制。结果显示:(1)急性给予Glu可诱发海马脑片CA1区神经元产生起始快、继而缓慢衰减的持续性内向Ca~(2+)流;(2)Aβ预处理浓度依赖性地增强海马神经元对Glu的反应性,显著提高给药后5 min内Ca~(2+)内流的平均流速,而NMDA受体拮抗剂D-APV可有效阻断Aβ对神经元Glu反应的这种易化作用;(3)用低钙人工脑脊液急性灌流脑片可引起海马CA1区神经元产生持续的外向跨膜Ca~(2+)流,其大部分可被特异性Na+/Ca~(2+)交换体抑制剂KB-R7943所阻断;(4)Aβ预处理可部分抑制低钙人工脑脊液引起的Ca~(2+)外排。这些结果表明:Aβ引起的细胞内Ca~(2+)超载不仅涉及到Ca~(2+)内流增加,也与其对Ca~(2+)外排的抑制有关;Aβ易化Glu的兴奋毒作用主要是通过NMDA受体介导的,其抑制Ca~(2+)外排的靶点主要是Na+/Ca~(2+)交换体。NMT具有操作相对简单、实时获取结果、非损伤的优点,适用于脑片Ca~(2+)内流和Ca~(2+)外排的长时间测定。因此,本研究不仅为解释Aβ所致Ca~(2+)超载的神经毒性机制提供了新的实验证据,也为开展跨膜Ca~(2+)信号转导机制的脑研究提供了新的技术方法。     

强声暴露对巴马小型猪海马细胞内Ca~(2+)变化及其信号通道的影响

声音对神经系统有重要影响,本研究旨在探讨噪音或高强度声音刺激对神经系统的影响及其机制。将听力正常的巴马小型猪随机分为正常对照组与强声暴露组。强声暴露组的巴马小型猪暴露于中低频强声(900 Hz-142 dB SPL)环境中15min,暴露结束后即刻分离出海马组织。用Fluo-4探针观察海马组织细胞内Ca~(2+)浓度([Ca~(2+)]_i)的变化,用real-time PCR和Western blot分别检测Ca~(2+)受体、L-型Ca~(2+)通道α2/δ1亚基、PKC和PI3K的mRNA和蛋白表达,用DAPI染色法观察细胞核形态变化。结果显示,相对对照组,强声暴露组小型猪海马组织细胞[Ca~(2+)]_i明显增加,L-型Ca~(2+)通道α2/δ1亚基、PKC和PI3K mRNA表达上调,Ca~(2+)受体和PKC蛋白表达显著上调。此外,强声暴露引起海马组织细胞核出现肿胀变形等损伤样改变。以上结果提示,强声暴露可以通过激活海马组织PKC信号通路,引起[Ca~(2+)]_i上调,最终导致海马组织内细胞的损伤。本研究结果不仅揭示了强声引起神经损伤的可能机制,同时为防护强声对神经系统造成的损伤提供了新的思路。     

芍药苷对大鼠背根神经元细胞内Ca~(2+)的影响

目的建立一种评价芍药苷对大鼠背根神经节神经元细胞内游离Ca~(2+)浓度影响的方法。方法显微解剖获取大鼠背根神经节(DRG),通过胰蛋白酶消化,过筛,用DF-12和抗有丝分裂培养液交替培养纯化,获得原代大鼠DRG神经元细胞,并采用细胞免疫荧光技术测定DRG神经元细胞纯度;采用激光共聚焦显微成像技术,观察细胞内Ca~(2+)荧光强度的变化,并对Ca~(2+)荧光强度变化率进行分析,探讨芍药苷对DRG细胞内游离钙离子浓度及辣椒素受体的影响。结果采用上述方法分离得到的DRG细胞纯度可高达95%以上,辣椒平可通过阻断辣椒素激活的瞬时受体电位通道的作用而抑制细胞内Ca~(2+)的增加。芍药苷表现出与辣椒平类似的作用,可以阻断细胞外Ca~(2+)内流。结论芍药苷可能是通过作用于TRPV1通道,而抑制DRG细胞内Ca~(2+)大量增加,本方法可以用于评价药物对大鼠DRG细胞内Ca~(2+)浓度的影响。     

用Fura-2测定缺氧时海马细胞内游离钙离子浓度的变化

本文用Fura-2荧光测定技术直接监测了缺氧时大鼠海马细胞内游离钙离子浓度[Ca~(2+)]_1的变化。实验发现,缺氧可使海马细胞[Ca~(2+)]_1显著增高,并且在缺氧过程中其增高呈现明显的时相性变化。在去除细胞外钙的情况下,缺氧仍能使[Ca~(2+)]_1增高,仅增高幅度有所降低;另外[Ca~(2+)]_1不再出现时相性变化特征。结果提示,胞外Ca~(2+)的内流以及内源Ca~(2+)的释放均参与了缺氧所致海马细胞[Ca~(2+)]_1的增高过程,缺氧时[Ca~(2+)]_1升高的时相性变化为胞外Ca~(2+)内流引起。     

肌醇1,4,5-三磷酸受体与阿尔茨海默病

细胞内质网上的肌醇1,4,5-三磷酸受体(inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors, IP3Rs)是调节Ca~(2+)释放的重要离子通道。Ca~(2+)稳态是维持机体细胞生理功能的重要基础,Ca~(2+)信号参与酶激活、囊泡释放和细胞凋亡等多种细胞过程。研究表明,Ca~(2+)信号异常与阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease, AD)密切相关,神经元中钙信号异常可以导致细胞稳态失衡、突触功能丧失,甚至细胞死亡。现对IP3Rs的生物特性及其介导的Ca~(2+)释放在阿尔茨海默病发生发展过程中的作用进行综述。     

砷诱导蚕豆气孔保卫细胞死亡的毒性效应

采用蚕豆(Vicia faba L.)叶面气孔保卫细胞,研究砷对细胞的毒性效应。结果表明,0.3—10 mg/L的NaAsO_2能降低保卫细胞活性,使部分细胞死亡,死亡率随砷浓度升高而增高。死细胞中呈现核固缩、核崩解等典型程序性死亡特征,且泛caspase抑制剂Z-Asp-CH_2-DCB能阻止NaAsO_2诱发的细胞死亡。过氧化氢清除剂过氧化氢酶与NaAsO_2共同作用时,细胞死亡率显著低于砷单独处理组,保卫细胞内Ca~(2+)水平降低,具程序性死亡特征的细胞数减少;Ca~(2+)特异性螯合剂EGTA亦能降低NaAsO_2诱发的细胞死亡。研究结果表明,NaAsO_2能诱发蚕豆保卫细胞程序性死亡,该过程由胁迫引发的ROS升高引起,ROS可能通过激活质膜Ca~(2+)通道,使胞外Ca~(2+)内流,造成胞内Ca~(2+)浓度升高,进而诱导细胞程序性死亡。     

土荆芥挥发性化感物质诱导蚕豆保卫细胞死亡及信号调节

为了探讨入侵植物土荆芥的化感作用机制,以其入侵地广泛种植的农作物蚕豆叶片下表皮为受试材料,通过对保卫细胞的活性分析,研究了土荆芥挥发油及其两种主要成分α-萜品烯和对伞花素诱导保卫细胞死亡及其信号调节的机制。结果表明:土荆芥挥发油、α-萜品烯、对伞花素具有显著的细胞毒性,随着处理剂量增加,保卫细胞存活率显著下降,细胞核出现了畸形、碎裂和降解等程序性细胞死亡的典型特征;活性氧(Reactive oxygen species,ROS)、一氧化氮合酶(Nitric oxide synthetase,NOS)和Ca~(2+)的组织化学定位显示,在土芥挥发油、α-萜品烯和对伞花素作用下,保卫细胞内ROS、NOS和Ca~(2+)的水平明显高于对照组;活性氧清除剂(AsA)、Ca~(2+)螯合剂(EGTA)和硝酸还原酶抑制剂(NaN——3)均可有效缓解土荆芥挥发油、α-萜品烯和对伞花素的细胞毒性,显著提高了保卫细胞的存活率(P0.05)。上述结果表明,ROS、NO和Ca~(2+)参与了土荆芥挥发油、α-萜品烯和对伞花素诱导蚕豆保卫细胞死亡的信号调节过程。土荆芥挥发油、α-萜品烯和对伞花素诱导的保卫细胞死亡,可能是通过ROS和NO调控保卫细胞内Ca~(2+)水平的变化而引起的。     

Con A刺激致T淋巴细胞胞浆游离Ca~(2+)浓度升高

本文分别应用荧光Ca~(2+)指示剂Quin2和Indo-1研究了Con A刺激的T淋巴细胞[Ca~(2+)]i升高过程及其发生机制.结果表明Con A与T淋巴细胞作用可导致细胞[Ca~(2+)]i的迅速升高.这种增加的胞内游离Ca~(2+)不仅来自胞外Ca~(2+)的内流,也来源于胞内钙库的释放.其中Ca~(2+)内流与T细胞钙通道的开放有关.可被钙通道抑制剂戊脉胺抑制,细胞的去极化及钾通道阻断剂四乙胺均不能阻断Ca~(2+)的内流,提示Ca~(2+)内流不是通过电位操纵的钙通道实现的,也与拥通道的开闭无关.Ca~(2+)内流可能是通过Con A受体活化的受体操纵的钙通道而实现的.     

川芎嗪对Aβ25-35诱导体外大鼠海马神经元细胞凋亡的影响

本文通过Aβ25-35诱导体外原代培养的SD乳大鼠海马神经元,建立Aβ毒性损伤细胞模型,结合AnnexinV-FITC/PI荧光双染法流式细胞术、MTT比色法、实时荧光定量PCR及Western blot方法检测川芎嗪(tetrameth-ylpyrazine,TMP)对原代培养的海马神经元细胞活性、早期凋亡率和Bax、Bcl-2基因表达的影响。结果显示川芎嗪高、中剂量可明显增强细胞活性,增加神经元细胞的存活率(P<0.01),可显著抑制海马神经元细胞早期凋亡(P<0.01),抑制凋亡蛋白Bax的表达(P<0.01),增强抗凋亡蛋白bcl-2的表达(P<0.01)。川芎嗪可通过调节Bax/Bcl-2平衡抵抗Aβ25-35诱导的海马神经元凋亡,降低Aβ的神经元毒性,对海马神经元损伤有明显的保护作用。     

Modulation of redox status and calcium handling by extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields in C2C12 muscle cells: A real-time,single-cell approach

The biological effects of electric and magnetic fields, which are ubiquitous in modern society, remain poorly understood. Here, we applied a single-cell approach to study the effects of short-term exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMFs) on muscle cell differentiation and function using C2C12 cells as an in vitro model of the skeletal muscle phenotype. Our focus was on markers of oxidative stress and calcium (Ca²⁺) handling, two interrelated cellular processes previously shown to be affected by such radiation in other cell models. Collectively, our data reveal that ELF-EMFs (1) induced reactive oxygen species production in myoblasts and myotubes with a concomitant decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential; (2) activated the cellular detoxification system, increasing catalase and glutathione peroxidase activities; and (3) altered intracellular Ca²⁺homeostasis, increasing the spontaneous activity of myotubes and enhancing cellular reactivity to a depolarizing agent (KCl) or an agonist (caffeine) of intracellular store Ca²⁺channels. In conclusion, our data support a possible link between exposure to ELF-EMFs and modification of the cellular redox state, which could, in turn, increase the level of intracellular Ca²⁺and thus modulate the metabolic activity of C2C12 cells.     

Differential Contribution of L-, N-, and P/Q-type Calcium Channels to [Ca<Superscript>2+</Superscript>]<Subscript>i</Subscript> Changes Evoked by Kainate in Hippocampal Neurons

We investigated the contribution of L-, N- and P/Q-type Ca²⁺ channels to the [Ca²⁺]_i changes, evoked by kainate, in the cell bodies of hippocampal neurons, using a pharmacological approach and Ca²⁺ imaging. Selective Ca²⁺ channel blockers, namely nitrendipine, ω-Conotoxin GVIA (ω-GVIA) and ω-Agatoxin IVA (ω-AgaIVA) were used. The [Ca²⁺]_i changes evoked by kainate presented a high variability, and were abolished by NBQX, a AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist, but the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, D-AP5, was without effect. Each Ca²⁺ channel blocker caused differential inhibitory effects on [Ca²⁺]_i responses evoked by kainate. We grouped the neurons for each blocker in three subpopulations: (1) neurons with responses below 60% of the control; (2) neurons with responses between 60% and 90% of the control, and (3) neurons with responses above 90% of the control. The inhibition caused by nitrendipine was higher than the inhibition caused by ω-GVIA or ω-AgaIVA. Thus, in the presence of nitrendipine, the percentage of cells with responses below 60% of the control was 41%, whereas in the case of ω-GVIA or ω-AgaIVA the values were 9 or 17%, respectively. The results indicate that hippocampal neurons differ in what concerns their L-, N- and P/Q- type Ca²⁺ channels activated by stimulation of the AMPA/kainate receptors. Special issue article in honor of Dr. Ricardo Tapia.     

Glutamate-induced metabolic changes influence the cytoplasmic redox state of hippocampal neurons

Brain cell metabolism is intimately associated with intracellular oxidation–reduction (redox) balance. Glutamatergic transmission is accompanied with changes in substrate preference in neurons. Therefore, we studied cytoplasmatic redox changes in hippocampal neurons in culture exposed to glutamate. Neurons were transfected with HyPer, a genetically encoded redox biosensor for hydrogen peroxide which allows real-time imaging of the redox state. The rate of fluorescence decay, corresponding to the reduction of the biosensor was found to be augmented by low doses of glutamate (10 μM) as well as by pharmacological stimulation of NMDA glutamate receptors. Acute chelation of extracellular Ca²⁺ abolished the glutamate-induced effect observed on HyPer fluorescence. Additional experiments indicated that mitochondrial function and hence energetic substrate availability commands the redox state of neurons and is required for the glutamate effect observed on the biosensor signal. Furthermore, our results implicated astrocytic metabolism in the changes of neuronal redox state observed with glutamate.     

Nicotine-induced Ca<Superscript>2+</Superscript>-myristoyl Switch of Neuronal Ca<Superscript>2+</Superscript> Sensor VILIP-1 in Hippocampal Neurons: A Possible Crosstalk Mechanism for Nicotinic Receptors

Visinin-like protein (VILIP-1) belongs to the neuronal Ca²⁺ sensor family of EF-hand Ca²⁺-binding proteins that regulate a variety of Ca²⁺-dependent signal transduction processes in neurons. It is an interaction partner of α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) and increases surface expression level and agonist sensitivity of the receptor in oocytes. Nicotine stimulation of nicotinic receptors has been reported to lead to an increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration by Ca²⁺-permeable nAChRs, which in turn might lead to activation of VILIP-1, by a mechanism described as the Ca²⁺-myristoyl switch. It has been postulated that this will lead to co-localization of the proteins at cell membranes, where VILIP-1 can influence functional activity of α4-containing nAChRs. In order to test this hypothesis we have investigated whether a nicotine-induced and reversible Ca²⁺-myristoyl switch of VILIP-1 exists in primary hippocampal neurons and whether pharmacological agents, such as antagonist specific for distinct nAChRs, can interfere with the Ca²⁺-dependent membrane localization of VILIP-1. Here we report, that only α7- but not α4-containing nAChRs are able to elicit a Ca²⁺-dependent and reversible membrane-translocation of VILIP-1 in interneurons as revealed by employing the specific receptor antagonists dihydro-beta-erythroidine and methylallylaconitine. The nAChRs are associated with processes of synaptic plasticity in hippocampal neurons and they have been implicated in the pathology of CNS disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease and schizophrenia. VILIP-1 might provide a novel functional crosstalk between α4- and α7-containing nAChRs.     

Ca<Superscript>2+</Superscript> Buffering Capacity of Mitochondria After Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation in Hippocampal Neurons

In an earlier study, we showed that mitochondria hyperpolarized after short periods of oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD), and this response appeared to be associated with subsequent apoptosis or survival. Here, we demonstrated that hyperpolarization following short periods of OGD (30 min; 30OGD group) increased the cytosolic Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_c) buffering capacity in mitochondria. After graded OGD (0 min (control), 30 min, 120 min), rat cultured hippocampal neurons were exposed to glutamate, evoking Ca²⁺influx. The [Ca²⁺]_c level increased sharply, followed by a rapid increase in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ [Ca²⁺]_m. The increase in the [Ca²⁺]_m level accompanied a reduction in the [Ca²⁺]_c level. After reaching a peak, the [Ca²⁺]_c level decreased more rapidly in the 30OGD group than in the control group. This buffering reaction was pronounced in the 30OGD group, but not in the 120OGD group. The enhanced buffering capacity of the mitochondria may be linked to preconditioning after short-term ischemic episodes.     

Inhibition of NMDA-induced outward currents by interleukin-1beta in hippocampal neurons

There is increasing evidence that a functional interaction exists between interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. The present study attempted to elucidate the effect of IL-1β on the NMDA-induced outward currents in mechanically dissociated hippocampal neurons using a perforated patch recording technique. IL-1β (30-100 ng/ml) inhibited the mean amplitude of the NMDA-induced outward currents that were mediated by charybdotoxin (ChTX)-sensitive Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ (K_Ca) channels. IL-1β (100 ng/ml) also significantly increased the mean ratio of the NMDA-induced inward current amplitudes measured at the end to the beginning of a 20-s application of NMDA. In hippocampal neurons from acute slice preparations, IL-1β significantly inhibited ChTX-sensitive K_Ca currents induced by a depolarizing voltage-step. IL-1 receptor antagonist antagonized effects of IL-1β. These results strongly suggest that IL-1β increases the neuronal excitability by inhibition of ChTX-sensitive K_Ca channels activated by Ca²⁺ influx through both NMDA receptors and voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels.     

Neurons respond to hyposmotic conditions by an increase in intracellular free calcium

The effect of hyposmotic conditions on the concentration of intracellular free calcium ([Ca²⁺]_i) was studied in cultured cerebellar granule cells and cerebral cortical neurons after loading of the cells with the fluorescent Ca²⁺ chelator Fluo-3. It was found that in both types of neurons exposure to media with a decrease in osmolarity of 20 to 50% of the osmolarity in the isosmotic medium (320 mOsm) led to a dose dependent increase in [Ca²⁺]_i with a time course showing the highest value at the earliest measured time point, i.e. 40 s after exposure to the hyposmotic media and a subsequent decline towards the basal level during the following 320 s. The response in the cortical neurons was larger than in the granule cells but both types of neurons exhibited a similar increase in [Ca²⁺]_i after expoxure to 50 mM K⁺ which was of the same magnitude as the increase in [Ca²⁺]_i observed in the cortical neurons exposed for 40 s to a medium with a 50% reduction in osmolarity. In both types of neurons the blocker of voltage gated Ca²⁺ channels verapamil had no effect on the hyposmolarity induced increase in [Ca²⁺]_i. On the contrary, this increase in [Ca²⁺]_i was dependent upon external calcium and could be inhibited partly or completely by the inorganic blockers of Ca²⁺ channels Mg²⁺ and La³⁺. Dantrolene which prevents release of Ca²⁺ from internal stores had no effect. The results show that exposure of neurons to hyposmotic conditions leading to swelling results in a large increase in free intracellular Ca²⁺ which represents an influx of Ca²⁺ rather than a release of Ca²⁺ from internal, dantrolene sensitive stores.     

An Atypical Role for Collapsin Response Mediator Protein 2 (CRMP-2) in Neurotransmitter Release via Interaction with Presynaptic Voltage-gated Calcium Channels

Collapsin response mediator proteins (CRMPs) specify axon/dendrite fate and axonal growth of neurons through protein-protein interactions. Their functions in presynaptic biology remain unknown. Here, we identify the presynaptic N-type Ca²⁺ channel (CaV2.2) as a CRMP-2-interacting protein. CRMP-2 binds directly to CaV2.2 in two regions: the channel domain I-II intracellular loop and the distal C terminus. Both proteins co-localize within presynaptic sites in hippocampal neurons. Overexpression in hippocampal neurons of a CRMP-2 protein fused to enhanced green fluorescent protein caused a significant increase in Ca²⁺ channel current density, whereas lentivirus-mediated CRMP-2 knockdown abolished this effect. Interestingly, the increase in Ca²⁺ current density was not due to a change in channel gating. Rather, cell surface biotinylation studies showed an increased number of CaV2.2 at the cell surface in CRMP-2-overexpressing neurons. These neurons also exhibited a significant increase in vesicular release in response to a depolarizing stimulus. Depolarization of CRMP-2-enhanced green fluorescent protein-overexpressing neurons elicited a significant increase in release of glutamate compared with control neurons. Toxin block of Ca²⁺ entry via CaV2.2 abolished this stimulated release. Thus, the CRMP-2-Ca²⁺ channel interaction represents a novel mechanism for modulation of Ca²⁺ influx into nerve terminals and, hence, of synaptic strength.     

Genetically Encoded Green Fluorescent Ca2+ Indicators with Improved Detectability for Neuronal Ca2+ Signals

Imaging the activities of individual neurons with genetically encoded Ca²⁺ indicators (GECIs) is a promising method for understanding neuronal network functions. Here, we report GECIs with improved neuronal Ca²⁺ signal detectability, termed G-CaMP6 and G-CaMP8. Compared to a series of existing G-CaMPs, G-CaMP6 showed fairly high sensitivity and rapid kinetics, both of which are suitable properties for detecting subtle and fast neuronal activities. G-CaMP8 showed a greater signal (F _max/F _min = 38) than G-CaMP6 and demonstrated kinetics similar to those of G-CaMP6. Both GECIs could detect individual spikes from pyramidal neurons of cultured hippocampal slices or acute cortical slices with 100% detection rates, demonstrating their superior performance to existing GECIs. Because G-CaMP6 showed a higher sensitivity and brighter baseline fluorescence than G-CaMP8 in a cellular environment, we applied G-CaMP6 for Ca²⁺ imaging of dendritic spines, the putative postsynaptic sites. By expressing a G-CaMP6-actin fusion protein for the spines in hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons and electrically stimulating the granule cells of the dentate gyrus, which innervate CA3 pyramidal neurons, we found that sub-threshold stimulation triggered small Ca²⁺ responses in a limited number of spines with a low response rate in active spines, whereas supra-threshold stimulation triggered large fluorescence responses in virtually all of the spines with a 100% activity rate.     

The specific Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchange inhibitor SEA0400 prevents nitric oxide-induced cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells

The Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger (NCX) plays a role in the regulation of intracellular Ca²⁺ levels, and nitric oxide (NO) is involved in many pathological conditions including neurodegenerative disorders. We have previously found that sodium nitroprusside (SNP), an NO donor, causes apoptotic-like cell death in cultured glial cells via NCX-mediated pathways and the mechanism for NO-induced cytotoxicity is cell type-dependent. The present study examined using the specific NCX inhibitor 2-[4-[(2,5-difluorophenyl)methoxy]phenoxy]-5-ethoxyaniline (SEA0400) whether NCX is involved in NO-induced injury in cultured neuronal cells. The treatment of neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells with SNP resulted in apoptosis and the cytotoxicity was blocked by the mitogen-activated protein (MAP)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) kinase inhibitor U0126 and the p38 MAP kinase (MAPK) inhibitor SB203580, but not by the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor SP60012. SNP increased Ca²⁺ influx and intracellular Ca²⁺ levels. In addition, SNP increased ERK and p38 MAPK phosphorylation, and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in an extracellular Ca²⁺-dependent manner. These effects of SNP were prevented by SEA0400. SNP-induced cytotoxicity was not affected by inhibitors of the Ca²⁺, Na⁺ and store-operated/capacitative channels. Moreover, SNP-induced increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ levels, ROS production and decrease in cell viability were blocked by a cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) inhibitor. These results suggest that Ca²⁺ influx via the reverse of NCX is involved in the cascade of NO-induced neuronal apoptosis and NO activates the NCX through guanylate cyclase/PKG pathway.