创伤性脑损伤后IL-1?茁在神经胶质细胞中经时定位表达的研究*

目的:探讨创伤性脑损伤(TBI)后白细胞介素-1β(IL-1β)在神经胶质细胞中的经时定位表达情况。方法:选择72只SPF级雄性小鼠分为假手术组(sham组)、TBI 6h组、TBI 12h组、TBI 1d组、TBI 4d组与TBI 7d组,每组12只,分别在脑损伤后6h、12h、1d、4d、7d时获取血清和脑组织并且制作切片。ELISA检测损伤后炎症因子IL-1β、白细胞介素-6 (IL-6)和肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)的表达。Western blot检测钙离子结合蛋白-1(IBA-1)和胶质纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)的表达。应用免疫荧光双重染色技术观察炎症因子IL-1β在小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞中的定位表达情况。结果:TBI后6h-7d时炎症因子IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α的表达量均高于sham组(P0.05)。Western blot结果显示,IBA-1的表达在损伤后6h-7d时高于sham组,GFAP的表达在损伤后1d-7d时高于sham组(P0.05)。免疫荧光双重染色技术显示,6h、12h时IL-1β主要表达在小胶质细胞中,IL-1β和IBA-1共表达细胞数量多于sham组(P0.05);1d、4d、7d时IL-1β主要表达在星形胶质细胞中,IL-1β和GFAP共表达细胞数量多于sham组(P0.05)。结论:TBI诱导了胶质细胞和炎症因子的表达,其表达随脑损伤的时间而变化,IL-1β早期定位表达于小胶质细胞,后期定位表达于星形胶质细胞中。     

小胶质细胞与创伤性脑损伤关系的研究进展

创伤性脑损伤(traumatic brain injury,TBI)是全球范围内人类致残和致死的主要原因之一,目前尚无有效的治疗方案。TBI可分为两个阶段:瞬时的原发性损伤,发生在损伤瞬间;以及之后的继发性损伤,该阶段涉及一系列复杂的病理过程。神经炎症是TBI的一个标志,它被认为是一个决定TBI转归的主要因素。作为中枢神经系统中的第一道也是最主要的一道免疫防线,小胶质细胞在TBI发生后被迅速激活,其表型随脑内微环境的变化而变化,表现出神经保护和神经毒性双重作用,因此小胶质细胞被视为治疗TBI的一个重要靶点。该文对TBI发生后小胶质细胞的时空特征、功能及以小胶质细胞为靶点的治疗方法的研究进展作一综述。     

小胶质细胞与炎症介导的神经系统退行性病变

小胶质细胞是中枢神经系统常驻细胞,行使支持、营养、免疫监视等多种功能。小胶质细胞在受到感染、外伤等因素刺激后活化,并产生多种免疫效应分子,包括：白细胞介素、肿瘤坏死因子、干扰素γ、活性氮、活性氧等。这些因子介导慢性炎症反应、细胞凋亡等,是导致神经系统退行性病变的主要因素。本文着重阐述小胶质细胞通过分泌这些效应分子引起神经功能损伤的机制,并对目前一些针对性治疗方法加以介绍。     

天冬酰胺内肽酶和胶质细胞在创伤性脑损伤中的激活

摘要 目的：创伤性脑损伤（traumatic brain injury, TBI）缺乏安全有效的治疗手段,亟须寻找新的干预靶点。天冬酰胺内肽酶 (asparaginyl endopeptidase, AEP)在免疫和神经系统疾病中起重要作用,本研究观察了小鼠TBI模型中AEP的激活和变化,探讨AEP对脑损伤和修复的意义。方法：控制性皮层撞击法在小鼠右脑半球制作TBI损伤,在造模后的不同时间点,测定受损脑组织内的乳酸含量和AEP的活性变化,免疫荧光化学染色观察TBI之后3天的胶质细胞活化,以及AEP在其中的表达。结果：TBI造成乳酸在受损脑组织内逐渐堆积,导致小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞的反应性活化和增生,AEP的上调和激活出现在TBI的继发性脑损伤阶段,AEP在小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞内均出现上调。结论：AEP有可能参与调控TBI引发的胶质细胞活化,在神经损伤和修复中发挥重要作用。     

小胶质细胞极化与抑郁症关系的研究进展

小胶质细胞控制着中枢神经系统主要的免疫功能,在各种精神疾病中发挥重要作用. 某些信号通路的激活引发的神经炎症与抑郁症的发生有着密切的关系. 小胶质细胞是神经炎症的主要介导者,不同的刺激促进小胶质细胞极化,不同极化类型的小胶质细胞能分泌多种炎性细胞因子,在神经炎症调节中具有重要的作用. 临床研究和体内外实验研究表明,抑郁症与小胶质细胞极化介导的神经炎症有关. 小胶质细胞极化参与抑郁症发生发展的可能机制包括NF-κB信号通路激活、呼吸爆发、补体受体3信号通路、NLRP3炎症激活、cannibalism受体1、Notch-1信号通路和过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ的激活. 本文就小胶质细胞极化与抑郁关系的研究进展作一综述.     

神经系统疾病中MicroRNA调控小胶质细胞极化机制研究

在多种神经系统的损伤和疾病中,神经炎症都发挥着重要的作用,而小胶质细胞是中枢炎症反映的重要招募者和执行者,是中枢主要的免疫监督细胞,是定居于中枢神经系统的巨噬细胞。本文通过分析小胶质细胞的极化,探讨了MiRNA参与小胶质细胞和巨噬细胞极化的调控,并且对在神经系统疾病中,MicroRNA影响小胶质细胞极化的重要性进行分析。     

胶质细胞参与神经病理痛的机制

神经病理痛是由于躯体感觉系统的损伤或疾病所引起的疼痛。胶质细胞主要包括中枢神经系统的星形胶质细胞和小胶质细胞,以及外周神经系统的施旺细胞和卫星胶质细胞。胶质细胞在神经受损后被激活,发生形态变化并上调特定蛋白表达,通过与神经元的相互作用,在神经病理痛的初始和维持阶段发挥重要作用。本文综述近年来胶质细胞参与神经病理痛的研究成果。     

高压氧治疗创伤性脑损伤的效用及机制研究

目的:研究高压氧(HBO)对大鼠创伤性脑损伤(TBI)治疗效用并观察脑组织星形胶质细胞活化及胶质细胞源性神经营养因子(GDNF)和神经生长因子(NGF)表达的变化以探讨作用机制。方法:SD雄性大鼠54只,随机分为3组(n=18):假手术组、TBI组和HBO治疗组。采用Feeney法建立大鼠TBI模型,假手术组只开放骨窗,不予打击。HBO治疗组大鼠于脑损伤后6 h采用动物高压舱,以3ATA压力纯氧治疗60 min。TBI后48 h测量神经功能,然后分离脑组织,其中18只用干湿法测定脑含水量;18只脑组织用于切片,部分进行尼氏染色后作形态学观察,部分进行免疫组织化学染色,检测星形胶质细胞标记物胶质纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)、波形蛋白(vimentin)与S100蛋白的表达;另18只大鼠取伤侧脑半球,进行Western blot分析,观察GDNF和NGF的表达。结果:HBO治疗能减轻神经功能障碍,降低脑含水量,减少海马部位神经细胞丢失,进一步激活损伤侧皮质与海马部位GFAP、vimentin与S-100阳性表达星形胶质细胞,促进损伤侧脑组织GDNF与NGF的表达。结论:HBO对创伤性脑损伤有较好治疗效果,其机制与上调GDNF和NGF的表达有关。     

神经炎症在帕金森病中的作用及研究进展

帕金森病(Parkinson disease,PD)是全球第二大神经退行性疾病,病理本质是"黑质多巴胺能神经元选择性、进行性死亡",发病机制不清。研究发现神经炎症在PD病程中发挥重要作用,表现在:PD病人和动物模型中,黑质局部小胶质细胞、星形胶质细胞激活,血脑屏障受损及外周T淋巴细胞浸润。但PD中神经炎症发生的机制尚未阐明。本文将综述神经炎症在PD中的表现及发生机制的研究进展,从神经炎症的角度为PD防治的研究提供可能的思路。     

炙甘草汤加减缓解神经根型颈椎病大鼠疼痛和对炎症反应的影响及机制研究

摘要 目的：探究炙甘草汤加减缓解神经根型颈椎病大鼠疼痛和对炎症反应的影响及机制。方法：采用免疫组织化学对接受炙甘草汤加减治疗的大鼠的脊髓组织神经元、小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞中sPLA2的表达进行检测。使用免疫组织化学法通过测量DNA损伤标记物8-OHG检测氧化应激的程度。结果：与在神经根受压之前进行炙甘草汤加减灌胃可显著减少脊髓炎症以及DRG中的外周氧化损伤（P<0.05）。炙甘草汤加减降低了脊髓中的小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞的激活,差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。与第7天神经胶质激活减少的同时,脊髓sPLA2的产生亦受到抑制,神经胶质和神经元均减少,差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。在疼痛性神经根损伤后,氧化应激标记物8-OHG几乎只存在于脊髓神经元中。在神经创伤前立即进行炙甘草汤加减治疗可防止外周DRG神经元中DNA和RNA中8-OHG增加,差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。结论：炙甘草汤加减可以通过减少中枢和外周神经炎症和氧化应激来预防疼痛的发展。     

Toll-Like Receptor 4 Knockdown Attenuates Brain Damage and Neuroinflammation After Traumatic Brain Injury via Inhibiting Neuronal Autophagy and Astrocyte Activation

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) has been linked to various pathophysiological conditions, such as traumatic brain injury (TBI). It is reported that posttraumatic neuroinflammation is an essential event in the progression of brain injury after TBI. Recent evidences indicate that TLR4 mediates glial phagocytic activity and inflammatory cytokines production. Thus, TLR4 may be an important therapeutic target for neuroinflammatory injury post-TBI. This study was designed to explore potential effects and underlying mechanisms of TLR4 in rats suffered from TBI. TBI model was induced using a controlled cortical impact in rats, and application of TLR4 shRNA silenced TLR4 expression in brain prior to TBI induction. Elevated TLR4 was specifically observed in the hippocampal astrocytes and neurons posttrauma. Interestingly, TLR4 shRNA decreased the concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tissue necrosis factor-α; alleviated hippocampal neuronal damage; reduced brain edema formation; and improved neurological deficits after TBI. Meanwhile, to further explore underlying molecular mechanisms of this neuroprotective effects of TLR4 knockdown, our results showed that TLR4 knockdown significantly inhibited the upregulation of autophagy-associated proteins caused by TBI. More importantly, an autophagy inducer, rapamycin pretreated, could partially abolish neuroprotective effects of TLR4 knockdown on TBI rats. Furthermore, TLR4 silencing markedly suppressed GFAP upregulation and improved cell hypertrophy to attenuate TBI-induced astrocyte activation. Taken together, these findings suggested that TLR4 knockdown ameliorated neuroinflammatory response and brain injury after TBI through suppressing autophagy induction and astrocyte activation.     

Elevated Cerebral Cortical CD24 Levels in Patients and Mice with Traumatic Brain Injury: A Potential Negative Role in Nuclear Factor Kappa B/Inflammatory Factor Pathway

Increasing evidence indicates that sterile inflammatory response contributes to secondary brain injury following traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, the specific mechanisms remain largely unknown, as is whether CD24, known as an important regulator in the non-infectious inflammatory response, plays a role in secondary brain injury after TBI. Here, the expression of CD24 was detected in samples from patients with TBI by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), western blotting, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. RNA interference was used to investigate the effects of CD24 on inflammatory response in a mouse model of TBI. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) DNA-binding activity was measured by electrophoretic mobility shift assay, and the levels of downstream pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and Interleukin 1β (IL-1β) were detected by real-time PCR. The results indicated that both the mRNA and protein levels of CD24 were markedly elevated after TBI in humans and mice, showing a time-dependent expression. The expression of CD24 could be observed in neurons, astrocytes and microglia in both humans and mice. Meanwhile, downregulation of CD24 significantly induced an increase of NF-κB DNA-binding activity and mRNA levels of TNF-α and IL-1β. These findings indicated that CD24 expression could negatively regulate the NF-κB/inflammatory factor pathway after experimental TBI in mice, thus providing a novel target for therapeutic intervention of TBI.     

Ghrelin attenuates brain injury after traumatic brain injury and uncontrolled hemorrhagic shock in rats

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) and hemorrhagic shock often occur concomitantly due to multiple injuries. Gastrointestinal dysfunction occurs frequently in patients with TBI. However, whether alterations in the gastrointestinal system are involved in modulating neuronal damage and recovery after TBI is largely neglected. Ghrelin is a "gut-brain" hormone with multiple functions including antiinflammation and antiapoptosis. The purpose of this study was to determine whether ghrelin attenuates brain injury in a rat model of TBI and uncontrolled hemorrhage (UH). To study this, brain injury was induced by dropping a 450-g weight from 1.5 m onto a steel helmet attached to the skull of male adult rats. Immediately after TBI, a midline laparotomy was performed and both lumbar veins were isolated and severed at the junction with the vena cava. At 45 min after TBI/UH, ghrelin (4, 8 or 16 nmol/rat) or 1 mL normal saline (vehicle) was intravenously administered. Brain levels of TNF-α and IL-6, and cleaved PARP-1 levels in the cortex were measured at 4 h after TBI/UH. Beam balance test, forelimb placing test and hindlimb placing test were used to assess sensorimotor and reflex function. In additional groups of animals, ghrelin (16 nmol/rat) or vehicle was subcutaneously (s.c.) administered daily for 10 d after TBI/UH. The animals were monitored for 28 d to record body weight changes, neurological severity scale and survival. Our results showed that ghrelin downregulated brain levels of TNF-α and IL-6, reduced cortical levels of cleaved PARP-1, improved sensorimotor and reflex functions, and decreased mortality after TBI/UH. Thus, ghrelin has a great potential to be further developed as an effective resuscitation approach for the trauma victims with brain injury and severe blood loss.     

Catalase Activity and Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances (TBARS) Production in a Rat Model of Diffuse Axonal Injury. Effect of Gadolinium and Amiloride

This study evaluated the effect of mechanogated membrane ion channel blockers on brain catalase (CAT) activity and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) production after traumatic brain injury (TBI). A weight drop trauma model was used. Controls were sham-operated and received no weight drop. Gadolinium (GAD) or amiloride (AMI) were administered to control and experimental rats (30 min after TBI). Brain CAT activity and TBARS production were measured. When blood vessels were washed out with saline perfusion brain CAT activity significantly increased up to 6 h after trauma, decreasing significantly by 24 h; GAD or AMI administration preserved CAT activity 24 h after TBI. TBARS production increased after trauma, this effect being significantly reversed by GAD or AMI administration. GAD significantly decreased TBARS production in control animals. Mechanogated membrane ion channels may be involved in the genesis of the ionic disruption leading to oxidative stress and other secondary injury processes in head trauma.     

Molecular mechanisms in the pathogenesis of traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a serious neurodisorder commonly caused by car accidents, sports related events or violence. Preventive measures are highly recommended to reduce the risk and number of TBI cases. The primary injury to the brain initiates a secondary injury process that spreads via multiple molecular mechanisms in the pathogenesis of TBI. The events leading to both neurodegeneration and functional recovery after TBI are generalized into four categories: (i) primary injury that disrupts brain tissues; (ii) secondary injury that causes pathophysiology in the brain; (iii) inflammatory response that adds to neurodegeneration; and (iv) repair-regeneration that may contribute to neuronal repair and regeneration to some extent following TBI. Destructive multiple mediators of the secondary injury process ultimately dominate over a few intrinsic protective measures, leading to activation of cysteine proteases such as calpain and caspase-3 that cleave key cellular substrates and cause cell death. Experimental studies in rodent models of TBI suggest that treatment with calpain inhibitors (e.g., AK295, SJA6017) and neurotrophic factors (e.g., NGF, BDNF) can prevent neuronal death and dysfunction in TBI. Currently, there is still no precise therapeutic strategy for the prevention of pathogenesis and neurodegeneration following TBI in humans. The search continues to explore new therapeutic targets and development of promising drugs for the treatment of TBI.     

Activation of bradykinin B2 receptor induced the inflammatory responses of cytosolic phospholipase A2 after the early traumatic brain injury

Phospholipase A₂ is a known aggravator of inflammation and deteriorates neurological outcomes after traumatic brain injury (TBI), however the exact inflammatory mechanisms remain unknown. This study investigated the role of bradykinin and its receptor, which are known initial mediators within inflammation activation, as well as the mechanisms of the cytosolic phospholipase A₂ (cPLA₂)-related inflammatory responses after TBI. We found that cPLA₂ and bradykinin B2 receptor were upregulated after a TBI. Rats treated with the bradykinin B2 receptor inhibitor LF 16-0687 exhibited significantly less cPLA₂ expression and related inflammatory responses in the brain cortex after sustaining a controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury. Both the cPLA₂ inhibitor and the LF16-0687 improved CCI rat outcomes by decreasing neuron death and reducing brain edema. The following TBI model utilized both primary astrocytes and primary neurons in order to gain further understanding of the inflammation mechanisms of the B2 bradykinin receptor and the cPLA₂ in the central nervous system. There was a stronger reaction from the astrocytes as well as a protective effect of LF16-0687 after the stretch injury and bradykinin treatment. The protein kinase C pathway was thought to be involved in the B2 bradykinin receptor as well as the cPLA₂-related inflammatory responses. Rottlerin, a Protein Kinase C (PKC) δ inhibitor, decreased the activity of the cPLA₂ activity post-injury, and LF16-0687 suppressed both the PKC pathway and the cPLA₂ activity within the astrocytes. These results indicated that the bradykinin B2 receptor-mediated pathway is involved in the cPLA₂-related inflammatory response from the PKC pathway.     

Differential modulation of carbachol and trans-ACPD-stimulated phosphoinositide turnover following traumatic brain injury

In the fluid percussion model of traumatic brain injury (TBI), we examined muscarinic and metabotropic glutamate receptor-stimulated polyphosphoinositide (PPI) turnover in rat hippocampus. Moderate injury was obtained by displacement and deformation of the brain within the closed cranial cavity using a fluid percussion device. Carbachol and (±)-1-Aminocyclopentane-trans-1,3.-dicarboxylic acid (trans-ACPD)-stimulated PPI hydrolysis was assayed in hippocampus from injured and sham-injured controls at both 1 hour and 15 days following injury. At 1 hour after TBI, the response to carbachol was enhanced in injured rats by up to 200% but the response to trans-ACPD was diminished by as much as 28%. By contrast, at 15 days after TBI, the response to carbachol was enhanced by 25% and the response to trans-ACPD was enhanced by 73%. The ionotropic glutamate agonists N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), and -amino-3 hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA), did not increase PPI hydrolysis in either sham or injured rats and injury did not alter basal hydrolysis. Thus, hippocampal muscarinic and metabotropic receptors linked to phospholipase C are differentially altered by TBI.Abbreviations used TBI traumatic brain injury - EAA excitatory amino acids - PPI polyphosphoinositides - IP inositol phosphates - NMDA N-methyl-D-aspartate - AMPA -amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate - trans-ACPD (±)-1-Aminocyclopentanetrans-1,3-dicarboxylic acid - LTP long term potentiation     

Differential regulation of metallothionein-I and metallothionein-II mRNA expression in the rat brain following traumatic brain injury

In this study, we investigated the expression of metallothionein (MT)-I and MT-II in the rat brain following traumatic brain injury (TBI). In the early stage, significant induction of MT-I and MT-II were observed in various regions including ventricle walls, pia mater, and dentate gyrus. At 12-24 h after TBI, strong induction of MT-I mRNA was observed in cerebral cortical layer II/III, amygdala, and piriform cortex where neurons reside. On the other hand, MT-II appeared to be expressed mainly in glial cells localized in the cerebral cortex and hippocampal formation. Three days after TBI, MTs were observed in the vimentin-positive astrocytes in the penumbra as revealed by double immunohistochemistry. The differences in expression of MT-I and MT-II in different brain regions and cell types (neuron vs. glial cells) suggests that multiple regulatory mechanisms are involved in the control of MT expression following brain injury.     

Modulation of autophagy in traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is defined as a traumatically induced structural injury or physiological disruption of brain function as a result of external forces, leading to adult disability and death. A growing body of evidence reveals that alterations in autophagy-related proteins exist extensively in both experimentally and clinically after TBI. Of note, the autophagy pathway plays an essential role in pathophysiological processes, such as oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and apoptosis, thus contributing to neurological properties of TBI. With this in mind, this review summarizes a comprehensive overview on the beneficial and detrimental effects of autophagy in pathophysiological conditions and how these activities are linked to the pathogenesis of TBI. Moreover, the relationship between oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and autophagy occur TBI. Ultimately, multiple compounds and various drugs targeting the autophagy pathway are well described in TBI. Therefore, autophagy flux represents a potential clinical therapeutic value for the treatment of TBI and its complications.