雷帕霉素对人胰腺癌细胞SW1990的mTOR信号通路的影响

目的:研究雷帕霉素对人胰腺癌细胞SW1990的mTOR信号通路的影响。方法:采用免疫细胞化学证实mTOR信号通路的存在,通过CCK-8法研究雷帕霉素对胰腺癌细胞增殖的影响,通过Western blot和real time PCR分别从蛋白水平和基因水平研究雷帕霉素对mTOR及其下游分子的表达。结果:免疫细胞化学结果显示p-mTOR、p-p70S6K、p-4E-BP1在细胞质中均呈阳性;CCK-8法显示雷帕霉素能明显抑制细胞增殖(P<0.05);Western blot结果显示随着雷帕霉素浓度的增加,p-mTOR、p-p70S6K表达明显减少,而p-4E-BP1蛋白表达明显增加(P<0.05);Real-time PCR结果显示随雷帕霉素浓度的增加,CyclinD1、VEGF、c-myc基因表达明显减少(P<0.05)。结论:人胰腺癌细胞系SW1990中存在mTOR信号通路并处于激活状态;雷帕霉素抑制胰腺癌细胞增殖与雷帕霉素抑制mTOR信号通路活化有关。     

低氧影响蛋白质合成和分解的平衡诱导骨骼肌萎缩

暴露在低氧环境下,可能会引起胃肠功能障碍和摄食量下降,打破骨骼肌蛋白质合成和分解平衡,造成骨骼肌萎缩。为探讨低氧环境下骨骼肌的萎缩是低氧环境引起的还是低氧诱发的摄食量减少所致,本研究检测大鼠腓肠肌中低氧时蛋白质合成与分解相关基因的蛋白质表达。将21只雄性SD大鼠,随机分为3组：常氧对照组、低氧组（氧浓度为12.4%,模拟海拔4 000 m高度）和配对组（大鼠的摄食量与低氧组前1 d的摄食量相同）,每组7只,每天记录大鼠体重和摄食量。4周后,HE染色法观察腓肠肌肌纤维形态,Western印迹测试相关蛋白质水平。低氧组和配对组摄食量在低氧干预初期,较常氧对照组有显著性下降(P<0.05),干预后期差异不明显;干预期间,低氧组大鼠体重平均增加量(102.10 g)、体重(341.20 ± 16.75 g)、肌肉总量（226.83 ± 8.33 g）和腓肠肌肌纤维横截面积(12.67 ± 1.83 mm)较常氧对照组（128.00 g;377.50 ± 20.75 g;260.50 ± 9.35 g;15.78 ± 2.38 mm）和配对组（119.40 g;375.86 ± 11.30 g;262.29 ± 7.90 g;15.71 ± 2.82 mm）均显著下降,配对组较常氧对照组无显著性差异;4周干预后,与常氧对照组相比,低氧组大鼠腓肠肌中与低氧相关的HIF1α显著增加(1.42 ± 0.19, P<0.05),Akt和p-Akt/Akt显著降低 (1.44 ± 0.13; 0.47 ± 0.08, P<0.05),配对组上述3种指标相对表达量均无显著性差异;在蛋白质合成方面,低氧组mTOR较常氧对照组显著下降(0.63 ± 0.18, P<0.05),配对组较常氧对照组差异不明显;低氧组腓肠肌中,4EBP1(1.14 ± 0.14)和p70S6K1(1.14 ± 0.11)较配对组显著下降(P<0.05)。在蛋白质分解方面,低氧组p-FoxO1和p-FoxO1/FoxO1比值较常氧对照组显著下降(0.71 ± 0.15; 0.78 ± 0.14, P<0.05);低氧组大鼠腓肠肌中,Atrogin1、MuRF1、Beclin1、LC3Ⅰ及LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ比值均高于常氧对照组(1.35 ± 0.12; 1.30 ± 0.22; 1.17 ± 0.11; 1.03 ± 0.11; 1.35 ± 0.13, P<0.05);配对组与常氧对照组间无明显差异。低氧环境下骨骼肌中蛋白质合成相关基因表达减少,蛋白质分解相关基因表达增加,造成骨骼肌萎缩,体重下降,此变化与摄食量减少无关。     

低氧影响蛋白质合成和分解的平衡诱导骨骼肌萎缩

暴露在低氧环境下,可能会引起胃肠功能障碍和摄食量下降,打破骨骼肌蛋白质合成和分解平衡,造成骨骼肌萎缩。为探讨低氧环境下骨骼肌的萎缩是低氧环境引起的还是低氧诱发的摄食量减少所致,本研究检测大鼠腓肠肌中低氧时蛋白质合成与分解相关基因的蛋白质表达。将21只雄性SD大鼠,随机分为3组：常氧对照组、低氧组（氧浓度为12.4%,模拟海拔4 000 m高度）和配对组（大鼠的摄食量与低氧组前1 d的摄食量相同）,每组7只,每天记录大鼠体重和摄食量。4周后,HE染色法观察腓肠肌肌纤维形态,Western印迹测试相关蛋白质水平。低氧组和配对组摄食量在低氧干预初期,较常氧对照组有显著性下降(P<0.05),干预后期差异不明显;干预期间,低氧组大鼠体重平均增加量(102.10 g)、体重(341.20 ± 16.75 g)、肌肉总量（226.83 ± 8.33 g）和腓肠肌肌纤维横截面积(12.67 ± 1.83 mm)较常氧对照组（128.00 g;377.50 ± 20.75 g;260.50 ± 9.35 g;15.78 ± 2.38 mm）和配对组（119.40 g;375.86 ± 11.30 g;262.29 ± 7.90 g;15.71 ± 2.82 mm）均显著下降,配对组较常氧对照组无显著性差异;4周干预后,与常氧对照组相比,低氧组大鼠腓肠肌中与低氧相关的HIF1α显著增加(1.42 ± 0.19, P<0.05),Akt和p-Akt/Akt显著降低 (1.44 ± 0.13; 0.47 ± 0.08, P<0.05),配对组上述3种指标相对表达量均无显著性差异;在蛋白质合成方面,低氧组mTOR较常氧对照组显著下降(0.63 ± 0.18, P<0.05),配对组较常氧对照组差异不明显;低氧组腓肠肌中,4EBP1(1.14 ± 0.14)和p70S6K1(1.14 ± 0.11)较配对组显著下降(P<0.05)。在蛋白质分解方面,低氧组p-FoxO1和p-FoxO1/FoxO1比值较常氧对照组显著下降(0.71 ± 0.15; 0.78 ± 0.14, P<0.05);低氧组大鼠腓肠肌中,Atrogin1、MuRF1、Beclin1、LC3Ⅰ及LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ比值均高于常氧对照组(1.35 ± 0.12; 1.30 ± 0.22; 1.17 ± 0.11; 1.03 ± 0.11; 1.35 ± 0.13, P<0.05);配对组与常氧对照组间无明显差异。低氧环境下骨骼肌中蛋白质合成相关基因表达减少,蛋白质分解相关基因表达增加,造成骨骼肌萎缩,体重下降,此变化与摄食量减少无关。     

抗阻训练通过Akt-FoxO1通路抑制低氧诱导的骨骼肌萎缩

高原低氧环境会引起肌力下降和运动能力退化,而抗阻训练是刺激骨骼肌生长的重要手段,叉头转录因子1（fork head box protein O 1,FoxO1）在调控骨骼肌蛋白质分解通路中承担重要角色。为探究Akt-FoxO1通路是否参与抗阻训练抑制低氧诱导的骨骼肌萎缩,本研究构建低氧诱导骨骼肌萎缩的大鼠模型,并模拟海拔4 000 m低氧环境下（12.4% O2）进行抗阻训练,对比观察大鼠比目鱼肌和趾长伸肌湿重和横截面积,以及蛋白激酶B（protein kinase B,Akt）、叉头转录因子1、泛素蛋白连接酶1（muscle ring finger 1,MuRF1）的表达差异等。结果表明,低氧暴露导致大鼠趾长伸肌湿重显著下降,苏木精-伊红染色组织切片分析肌纤维横截面积、低氧环境下比目鱼肌横截面积明显下降,而低氧抗阻训练后趾长伸肌横截面积明显高于安静组。实时荧光定量PCR和蛋白质免疫印迹结果显示,低氧暴露后FoxO1和MuRF1基因表达明显上调,低氧下抗阻训练后发现,Akt基因表达明显上调而FoxO1、MuRF则明显下调。免疫荧光观察磷酸化FoxO1在细胞核内外表达情况,发现抗阻训练后FoxO1（S256）于细胞核外表达增强。上述结果表明,抗阻训练可以达到抑制低氧诱导骨骼肌萎缩的效果,Akt促进FoxO1磷酸化从而减缓骨骼肌蛋白质分解过程是抗阻训练能够抑制骨骼肌萎缩的分子机制之一。     

mTOR/4E-BP1参与诺考达唑诱导的Dami细胞多倍体化调控

目的:多倍性是物种形成的重要机制,决定一些重要器官细胞产生的数量和功能,而且与某些病理过程(如恶性肿瘤)的发生有密切关系.我们通过建立相对同步化的多倍体细胞模型,已经证实mTOR/S6K1参与多倍体细胞周期的调控.本课题主要研究mTOR下游的另一个重要信号分子4E-BP1是否也参与细胞的倍体化调控.方法:诺考达唑诱导Dami细胞建立相对同步化的多倍体细胞模型,Western-blot分析多倍体细胞模型中mTOR/4E-BP1通路信号分子表达和磷酸化修饰位点的变化,流式细胞仪双荧光分析4E-BP1不同结构域磷酸化位点修饰与细胞周期各时相的关系.结果:诺考达唑诱导的Dami细胞可作为相对同步化的多倍体细胞周期模型,在二倍体和多倍体细胞周期中,mTOR表达增加及第2448位丝氨酸位点磷酸化发生在G1期进入S期,4E-BP1的第37,46位苏氨酸和第65位丝氨酸位点磷酸化发生在G2/M期.结论:mTOR/4E-BP1通路参与多倍体细胞周期的调控.     

Toll样受体4通过Akt/FoxO3a/Bim信号通路参与海马神经元凋亡

为了探讨海马神经元中是否有Toll样受体4(Toll-like receptor 4,TLR4)介导的Akt/FoxO3a/Bim信号通路,及该通路在海马神经元凋亡中的作用和机制,本实验运用脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)作用于原代培养的大鼠海马神经元,利用不同的工具药,以减弱或加强TLR4/Akt/FoxO3a/Bim通路的作用。应用CCK-8法检测细胞活力,Western blot法检测神经元p-Akt(Ser473)、Akt、p-FoxO3a(Thr32)、FoxO3a、Bim、活化的Caspase-3蛋白的表达变化,real-time PCR法检测海马神经元Bim的mRNA表达变化,免疫荧光法观察FoxO3a核易位情况,流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡率。结果显示:LPS作用于海马神经元不同时间后,各组细胞活力均下降(P0.05),且具有一定的时间依赖性;LPS作用后p-Akt(Ser473)、p-FoxO3a(Thr32)表达减少,FoxO3a易位进入胞核,而促凋亡蛋白Bim及活化的Caspase-3表达增加,且海马神经元的凋亡率也增加(P0.05);PI3K特异性抑制剂LY294002预处理后p-Akt(Ser473)、p-FoxO3a(Thr32)表达较LPS组降低,而促凋亡蛋白Bim及活化的Caspase-3表达升高,细胞凋亡率也明显升高(P0.05);TLR4抗体预处理后p-Akt(Ser473)、p-FoxO3a(Thr32)较LPS组增多,FoxO3a易位进入胞核的活动减弱,而促凋亡蛋白Bim、活化的Caspase-3及细胞的凋亡率均减少(P0.05)。以上结果表明,海马神经元中有TLR4介导的Akt/FoxO3a/Bim通路;神经元可通过该通路引起自身的凋亡。     

PI3K/AKt/mTOR信号通路介导黄芩苷抑制增生性瘢痕组织成纤维细胞的增殖

黄芩苷作为一种黄酮类成分可通过抑制细胞增殖、促进凋亡发挥抗肿瘤作用,但它是否对异常增生的瘢痕具有抑制增生的作用尚不清楚.本研究探讨黄芩苷抑制人增生性瘢痕组织成纤维细胞增殖的分子机制. 采用MTT比色法检测不同浓度的黄芩苷（2.24×10-2 ～ 2.24×102 mmol/L）对体外培养的增生性瘢痕组织成纤维细胞增殖的抑制作用.发现浓度为2.24×100～2.24×102 mmol/L黄芩苷处理组明显抑制增生性瘢痕组织成纤维细胞的增殖（P<0.05）.转染后的荧光素酶报告基因活性检测、RT-PCR及Western印迹分析技术检测其mRNA水平及细胞的帽状依赖翻译的表达.2.24×102 mmol/L黄芩苷处理后,黄芩苷作用组的mRNA水平并无明显差异（P>0.05）;增生性瘢痕成纤维细胞的帽状依赖结构的翻译明显被黄芩苷所抑制.采用Western印迹分析检测被黄芩苷干预的增生性瘢痕组织成纤维细胞的增殖相关的蛋白的表达;m7GTP琼脂糖珠沉淀结合蛋白4E-BP1与eIF4E的变化.发现增殖相关的蛋白mTOR、p70S6K、S6、4EBP1、eIF4E及其上游的AKT表达明显下调（P<0.05）,而PTEN表达明显上调.p-AKT(Ser473)、p-mTOR(Ser2448)、p-S6(Ser235/236)、p-4EBP1(Thr37/ 46)、p-PTEN（T380/S382/383）磷酸化水平下降（P<0.05）.在黄芩苷作用下的增生性成纤维细胞中的游离的4E-BP1明显减少（P<0.05）,而与eIF4E结合的4E-BP1明显增加（P<0.05）黄芩苷诱导游离的4E-BP1与eIF4E结合,从而抑制帽状依赖蛋白翻译.以上结果说明,黄芩苷可通过抑制PI3K/AKT/mTOR信号通路抑制人增生性瘢痕组织成纤维细胞的增殖.     

mTOR的研究进展

mTOR(mammaliantargetofrapamycin)是丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶,在感受营养信号、调节细胞生长与增殖中起着关键性的作用。mTOR可磷酸化p70S6K和4E-BP1,促进蛋白质合成。mTOR的活性受氨基酸尤其是亮氨酸浓度的调节,生长因子及能量水平也能通过AMPK调节mTOR活性。PI3K/Akt和Akt/TSC1-TSC2两条信号通路都可调控mTOR活性,进而调节细胞的生长与增殖。mTOR信号通路的异常会导致肿瘤的发生,可以针对mTOR研制出治疗肿瘤的靶向药物。     

八眉猪、长白猪及长×八杂交猪肌肉组织中FoxO1基因的表达

分别取6月龄八眉、长白和 (长×八)杂交猪后腿部比目鱼肌、腓肠肌和趾长伸肌, 提取总RNA, 根据人、黑猩猩及大鼠等物种FoxO1基因同源序列设计并合成引物, 以猪b-actin 基因作为内参, 优化反应条件和体系, RT-PCR 单管扩增猪FoxO1基因, 检测八眉、长白和长×八杂交猪不同类型骨骼肌中FoxO1基因mRNA的表达差异。结果表明: 在不同经济类型猪群和不同类型骨骼肌中FoxO1基因mRNA的表达丰度不同, 即在八眉 猪骨骼肌中的表达普遍高于长白猪 (P<0.01), 在杂交组合 (长×八)骨骼肌中的表达也高于长白猪 (P<0.01); 同时在以Ⅰ型纤维为主的比目鱼肌中表达丰度最低(P<0.01), 在以Ⅱb型纤维为主的趾长伸肌中表达丰度最高(P<0.01)。结果提示, FoxO1基因的表达与Ⅰ型肌纤维的含量成反比; 不同经济类型猪品种骨骼肌的发育与FoxO1基因的调控有关。     

慢病毒介导的mTOR敲低肝癌细胞株HepG2的构建及初步功能检测

目的:建立高效稳定的哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mTOR)小干扰RNA(siRNA)细胞导入方法,并对mTOR敲低的HepG2肝癌细胞株的功能进行初步检测。方法:构建了2条不同的人mTOR慢病毒siRNA载体pLenti-H1/mTOR siRNA,与3个包装质粒共转染293T细胞,包装成慢病毒后感染HepG2细胞;经嘌呤霉素筛选2周后,收集细胞进行Western印迹,检测mTOR敲减效果及其下游基因c-myc、周期蛋白D1(cyclinD1)表达水平及4E-BP1、S6K1磷酸化水平的变化。结果:RT-PCR和Western印迹结果显示,构建的pLenti-H1/mTOR siRNA能有效抑制mTOR基因的表达,敲低了mTOR蛋白水平,且沉默mTOR后其下游基因c-myc、CyclinD1的表达水平及4E-BP1、S6K1磷酸化水平降低。结论:构建了慢病毒介导RNA干扰mTOR表达载体,为进一步研究mTOR通路奠定了实验基础。     

Intracellular signaling pathways regulating net protein balance following diaphragm muscle denervation

Unilateral denervation (DNV) of rat diaphragm muscle increases protein synthesis at 3 days after DNV (DNV-3D) and degradation at DNV-5D, such that net protein breakdown is evident by DNV-5D. On the basis of existing models of protein balance, we examined DNV-induced changes in Akt, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and ERK½ activation, which can lead to increased protein synthesis via mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/p70S6 kinase (p70S6K), glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β), or eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E), and increased protein degradation via forkhead box protein O (FoxO). Protein phosphorylation was measured using Western analyses through DNV-5D. Akt phosphorylation decreased at 1 h and 6 h after DNV compared with sham despite decreased AMPK phosphorylation. Both Akt and AMPK phosphorylation returned to sham levels by DNV-1D. Phosphorylation of their downstream effector mTOR (Ser2481) did not change at any time point after DNV, and phosphorylated p70S6K and eIF4E-binding protein 1 (4EBP1) increased only by DNV-5D. In contrast, ERK½ phosphorylation and its downstream effector eIF4E increased 1.7-fold at DNV-1D and phosphorylated GSK3β increased 1.5-fold at DNV-3D (P < 0.05 for both comparisons). Thus, following DNV there are differential effects on protein synthetic pathways with preferential activation of GSK3β and eIF4E over p70S6K. FoxO1 nuclear translocation occurred by DNV-1D, consistent with its role in increasing expression of atrogenes necessary for subsequent ubiquitin-proteasome activation evident by DNV-5D. On the basis of our results, increased protein synthesis following DNV is associated with changes in ERK½-dependent pathways, but protein degradation results from downregulation of Akt and nuclear translocation of FoxO1. No single trigger is responsible for protein balance following DNV. Protein balance in skeletal muscle depends on multiple synthetic/degradation pathways that should be studied in concert.     

氧化低密度脂蛋白经AMPK/mTOR信号通路诱导HUVECs自噬

氧化低密度脂蛋白（oxygenized low density lipoprotein, ox-LDL）诱导人脐静脉内皮细胞（human umbilical vein endothelial cells, HUVECs）损伤有助于动脉粥样硬化（atherosclerosis, AS）的发展。但ox-LDL对HUVECs自噬的影响及机制尚不清楚。为探究其机制,采用体外培养HUVECs,建立ox-LDL损伤模型。透射电子显微镜观察HUVECs中自噬体的变化;Western印迹法检测p-AMPK、AMPK、p-mTOR、mTOR及Beclin1、LC3-II、P62的表达。结果显示,与对照组比较,透射电子显微镜下观察到ox-LDL组的自噬体明显增多。Western印迹结果显示,与对照组比较,ox-LDL组Beclin1(0.81±0.04 vs. 1.83±0.11,P＜0.01)、LC3-II(0.80±0.06 vs. 1.61±0.06, P＜0.01)和P62(0.65±0.10 vs. 1.64±0.17, P＜0.01)表达显著增高。ox-LDL和BafilomycinA1共同干预组Beclin-1(3.15±0.15 vs. 3.17±0.13, P>0.05)、LC3-II(2.95±0.12 vs. 2.96±0.12, P >0.05)和P62(3.26±0.15 vs. 3.19±0.15, P>0.05)表达与BafilomycinA1组无显著差异,ox-LDL未使自噬起始增加,可能是降解受损导致自噬体的积累。与对照组比较,ox-LDL增加p-AMPK (0.47±0.03 vs. 0.96±0.03, P＜0.01)表达,并降低p-mTOR(0.86±0.04 vs. 0.25±0.05, P＜0.01)表达。单独阻断mTOR时, Beclin-1(0.81±0.05 vs. 2.19±0.17, P＜0.01)、LC3-II(0.76±0.13 vs 2.00±0.05, P＜0.01)和P62(0.74±0.12 vs. 1.94±0.11, P＜0.01)表达显著增加。亮氨酸（Leucine）可增加p-mTOR(0.87±0.11 vs. 1.67±0.07, P＜0.01)表达,并降低Beclin-1(0.81±0.05 vs. 0.37±0.03, P＜0.01)、LC3-II（0.76±0.13 vs. 0.41±0.02, P＜0.01）和P62（0.76±0.10 vs. 0.44±0.04, P＜0.01）表达,但ox-LDL可使Leucine预处理后的p-mTOR（1.67±0.11 vs. 0.82±0.02, P＜0.01）表达显著降低,并且Beclin-1（0.37±0.03 vs. 0.78±0.04, P＜0.01）、LC3-II（0.41±0.02 vs. 0.78±0.02, P＜0.01）和P62（0.44±0.04 vs. 0.74±0.04, P＜0.01）表达显著增加。说明mTOR参与ox-LDL诱导的自噬。与ox-LDL组相比,ox-LDL和Si-AMPK共同处理组p-mTOR(0.25±0.05 vs. 0.46±0.03, P＜0.01)表达增加以及Beclin-1(1.97±0.04 vs. 1.26±0.12, P＜0.01)、LC3-II(1.42±0.10 vs. 0.95±0.05, P＜0.01)和P62(1.58±0.09 vs. 0.98±0.11, P＜0.01)表达降低。以上结果表明,ox-LDL通过AMPK/mTOR途径诱导HUVECs发生自噬,并且导致自噬体的积累。     

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and leucine activate pig myogenic satellite cells through mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway

Myogenic satellite cells are adult stem cells and have important roles in skeletal muscle growth, repair, and regeneration. Both insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and leucine stimulate skeletal muscle growth, which link to the activation and proliferation of myogenic satellite cells in skeletal muscle. Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling is one of the main signaling pathways controlling protein synthesis and cell proliferation. Thus, IGF-1 and leucine may stimulate activation of myogenic satellite cells through mTOR signaling. In this study, myogenic satellite cells were isolated from 6-month-old pigs and subjected to IGF-1 and leucine treatments. Both IGF-1 and leucine upregulated mTOR signaling in myogenic satellite cells. The phosphorylation of mTOR at Ser(2448) increased 83.8 +/- 7.7% by IGF-1 (P < 0.05) and 83.4 +/- 5.7% by leucine (P < 0.05). The downstream targets of mTOR, S6 kinase, and 4E-binding protein 1 (4EBP1) were also phosphorylated due to IGF-1 and leucine treatments. Treatment with IGF-1 and leucine induced the phosphorylation of tuburin (TSC2), a key mediator upstream of mTOR signaling, by 272.8 +/- 26.4% and 94.2 +/- 28.7%, respectively. Treatment of cells with both IGF-1 and leucine did not show synergistic effect on mTOR signaling. Inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin abolished the protein synthesis and cell proliferation stimulated by both IGF-1 and leucine. In summary, our data showed that in preliminary cultured myogenic satellite cells mTOR signaling was activated due to IGF-1 and leucine treatments, and this mTOR activation is necessary for the activation of myogenic satellite cells.     

Altered REDD1, myostatin, and Akt/mTOR/FoxO/MAPK signaling in streptozotocin-induced diabetic muscle atrophy

Type 1 diabetes, if poorly controlled, leads to skeletal muscle atrophy, decreasing the quality of life. We aimed to search highly responsive genes in diabetic muscle atrophy in a common diabetes model and to further characterize associated signaling pathways. Mice were killed 1, 3, or 5 wk after streptozotocin or control. Gene expression of calf muscles was analyzed using microarray and protein signaling with Western blotting. We identified translational repressor protein REDD1 (regulated in development and DNA damage responses) that increased seven- to eightfold and was associated with muscle atrophy in diabetes. The diabetes-induced increase in REDD1 was confirmed at the protein level. This result was accompanied by the increased gene expression of DNA damage/repair pathways and decreased expression in ATP production pathways. Concomitantly, increased phosphorylation of AMPK and dephosphorylation of the Akt/mTOR/S6K1/FoxO pathway of proteins were observed together with increased protein ubiquitination. These changes were especially evident during the first 3 wk, along with the strong decrease in muscle mass. Diabetes also induced an increase in myostatin protein and decreased MAPK signaling. These, together with decreased serum insulin and increased serum glucose, remained altered throughout the 5-wk period. In conclusion, diabetic myopathy induced by streptozotocin led to alteration of multiple signaling pathways. Of those, increased REDD1 and myostatin together with decreased Akt/mTOR/FoxO signaling are associated with diabetic muscle atrophy. The increased REDD1 and decreased Akt/mTOR/FoxO signaling followed a similar time course and thus may be explained, in part, by increased expression of genes in DNA damage/repair and possibly also decrease in ATP-production pathways.     

eIF3-f function in skeletal muscles: To stand at the crossroads of atrophy and hypertrophy

The control of muscle cell size is a physiological process balanced by a fine tuning between protein synthesis and protein degradation. MAFbx/Atrogin-1 is a muscle specific E3 ubiquitin ligase up regulated during disuse, immobilization, and fasting or systemic diseases such as diabetes, cancer, SIDA and renal failure. This response is necessary to induce a rapid and functional atrophy. To date, the targets of MAFbx/Atrogin-1 in skeletal muscle remain to be identified. We have recently presented evidence that eIF3-f, a regulatory subunit of the eukaryotic translation factor eIF3 is a key target that accounts for MAFbx/Atrogin-1 function in muscle atrophy. More importantly, we showed that eIF3-f act as a “translational enhancer” that increases the efficiency of the structural muscle proteins synthesis leading to both in vitro and in vivo muscle hypertrophy. We propose that eIF3-f subunit, a mTOR/S6K1 scaffolding protein in the IGF-1/Akt/mTOR dependant control of protein translation, is a positive actor essential to the translation of specific mRNAs probably implicated in the muscle hypertrophy. The central role of eIF3-f in both the atrophic and hypertrophic pathways will be discussed in the light of its promising potential in muscle wasting therapy.     

Activated protein synthesis and suppressed protein breakdown signaling in skeletal muscle of critically ill patients

Background

Skeletal muscle mass is controlled by myostatin and Akt-dependent signaling on mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) and forkhead box O (FoxO) pathways, but it is unknown how these pathways are regulated in critically ill human muscle. To describe factors involved in muscle mass regulation, we investigated the phosphorylation and expression of key factors in these protein synthesis and breakdown signaling pathways in thigh skeletal muscle of critically ill intensive care unit (ICU) patients compared with healthy controls.

Methodology/Principal Findings

ICU patients were systemically inflamed, moderately hyperglycemic, received insulin therapy, and showed a tendency to lower plasma branched chain amino acids compared with controls. Using Western blotting we measured Akt, GSK3β, mTOR, ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6k), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 (4E-BP1), and muscle ring finger protein 1 (MuRF1); and by RT-PCR we determined mRNA expression of, among others, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), FoxO 1, 3 and 4, atrogin1, MuRF1, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and myostatin. Unexpectedly, in critically ill ICU patients Akt-mTOR-S6k signaling was substantially higher compared with controls. FoxO1 mRNA was higher in patients, whereas FoxO3, atrogin1 and myostatin mRNAs and MuRF1 protein were lower compared with controls. A moderate correlation (r² = 0.36, p<0.05) between insulin infusion dose and phosphorylated Akt was demonstrated.

Conclusions/Significance

We present for the first time muscle protein turnover signaling in critically ill ICU patients, and we show signaling pathway activity towards a stimulation of muscle protein synthesis and a somewhat inhibited proteolysis.