细菌sRNA对环境胁迫的响应机制

细菌小RNA (Small RNAs,sRNAs)是一类长度大约在40?400个核酸之间,不编码蛋白质的RNA,在细菌适应环境方面起重要的调节作用。当环境中温度、营养、外膜蛋白、pH、铁等条件改变时,sRNA常常通过连接双组分信号转导系统和调节蛋白,来传递压力信号并调节应激响应,其作用方式一般是通过碱基互补配对的方式与靶mRNA结合,从而调控靶mRNA的翻译和稳定性;或直接与靶标蛋白质结合,调节靶标蛋白质的生物活性。本文总结了细菌在多种环境压力下,sRNA的调控响应机制。     

细菌调节蛋白Hfq研究进展

Hfq是一个高度保守的RNA结合蛋白,最初被发现是作为大肠杆茵(E.coli)RNA噬菌体QB复制所必需的管家因子,现在则被认为是细菌基因转录后调控的关键因子,广泛参与细茵多种生命活动的调控.与真核生物中Sm和Sm样蛋白相似,Hfq可以通过形成同源六聚体结合富舍A、U的单链RNA参与RNA间互作.同时Hfq蛋白还可与体内的多种RNA调节蛋白如polyA聚合酶Ⅰ(PAP Ⅰ)、多聚核苷酸磷酸化酶(PNP)、RNA酶E(RNase E)等并调节他们的活性.此外,Hfq对自身的表达也具有回馈抑制作用.本文主要结合Hfq的研究历史和最新进展,对其分子结构、作用机制、生理功能以及系统进化中的地位做一综述.     

细菌小RNA的研究

小RNA(smallRNA,sRNA)在基因表达调控和生长发育等方面发挥着重要作用。细菌sRNA多通过与靶mRNA配对,转录后水平影响目的mRNA翻译或(和)稳定性,对基因的表达进行调节,以影响细胞的多种生理功能。本文从细菌sRNA与真核生物微RNA(microRNA,miRNA)的比较,sRNA的分类,sRNA分子伴侣Hfq及sRNA鉴别方法等方面综述了sRNA的研究进展,指出目前sRNA研究仍然存在的问题。原核生物中sRNA的大量发现和深入研究,有可能使人们对生物进化和生命的发展过程有更为深入的认识与了解。     

细菌全局性调控因子CsrA的结构与功能

碳存储调控因子A (carbon storage regulator, CsrA) 是一种RNA结合蛋白,在细菌的碳代谢、生物被膜形成、运动性、病原菌毒力、群体感应、环二鸟苷酸信号合成、应激感应等多种生理过程中具有重要调节功能,是全局性调控蛋白.它通过与靶标mRNA的特异结合,抑制其翻译或增强其稳定性来调控下游基因的表达,属于转录后调控因子的范畴.CsrA蛋白的表达与活性受碳存储调控(Csr)系统本身多个自主调节回路的精密控制：　一些小的非编码RNA (snmRNAs,如CsrB/C）作为拮抗因子与CsrA二聚体结合并抑制其活性;而这些snmRNAs在体内又可在CsrD的辅助下被核糖核酸内切酶E和多核苷酸磷酸化酶降解,释放CsrA的活性.当前,对于Csr系统的调节作用、调控通路与机制的研究是细菌学研究的热点,本文综述了该蛋白及Csr系统的结构、功能和作用机制的最新研究进展.     

细菌中非编码小RNA的筛选及鉴定

细菌非编码小RNA(small non-coding RNA,sRNA)是一类长度在50-200个核苷酸,不编码蛋白质的RNA.它们通过碱基配对识别靶标mRNA,在转录后水平调节基因的表达,是细菌代谢、毒力和适应环境压力的重要调节因子.近年来,随着生物信息学和RNA组学技术应用于细菌sRNA的筛选,sRNA已被证实存在于大肠埃希杆菌(Escherichia coli),铜绿假单胞菌(Pseudomonas aeruginosa)、霍乱弧菌(Vibrio cholerae)等细菌中,是细菌基因调控中新的调节因子.本文对细菌中非编码小RNA的筛选和鉴定技术作一个简要论述.     

病毒miRNA:共生舞者?

MicroRNAs(miRNAs)是大约22个核苷酸长度的非编码RNA,存在于几乎所有多细胞生物中。miRNA基因编码的pri-miRNA在细胞核内经Drosha酶切割后运输到胞浆内,并由Dicer酶切割而成熟,与宿主蛋白结合形成RNA诱导的沉默复合体,通过与靶mRNA的3’端非翻译区不完全互补结合,诱导靶信使RNA(messenger RNA,mRNA)降解或翻译抑制,从而调节蛋白表达。miRNA不易突变,特别是5’端的2～7或2～8个核苷酸(seed region)与靶mRNA完全互补,非常保守。miRNA几乎在所有生物过程中起作用,如细胞分化、增殖、凋亡、新陈代谢以及调节免疫。     

建立基于RNA免疫共沉淀技术的鼠疫耶尔森菌Hfq蛋白相关sRNA的体内验证方法

目的：建立RNA免疫共沉淀方法,为鼠疫耶尔森菌Hfq蛋白相关非编码小RNA（sRNA）提供体内验证方法。方法：首先在RNA结合蛋白Hfq下游加入Flag标签,用Flag标签抗体进行免疫共沉淀,获得蛋白-RNA复合物,然后从沉淀的蛋白-RNA复合物中分离得到纯化的RNA;通过Western印迹检测各步骤Hfq蛋白的表达,再利用Northern印迹检测目的sRNA--RyhB1和RyhB2。结果：构建了带有Flag标签的RNA结合蛋白Hfq的载体,此载体转导入hfq缺失株后与鼠疫菌野生株的生长曲线无明显差异;通过RNA-蛋白免疫共沉淀技术鉴定出已知与鼠疫菌Hfq蛋白结合的2个sRNA--RyhB1和RyhB2。结论：建立了利用RNA-蛋白免疫共沉淀鉴定与鼠疫菌Hfq蛋白结合的sRNA的技术,为细菌sRNA的验证、功能研究和体内蛋白质与RNA相互作用研究提供了有利工具。     

超分辨显微技术结合smFISH方法在E. coli sRNA SgrS定位中的应用

细菌调节小RNA通常与靶mRNA结合,影响翻译和mRNA降解过程.了解细菌小RNA的定量和定位信息,将有助于揭示细菌转录后水平的调控机制.小RNA SgrS通过抑制ptsG mRNA翻译起始,参与细菌磷酸葡萄糖代谢的应激过程.本研究应用单分子荧光原位杂交(smFISH)方法和超分辨显微技术可视化定位大肠杆菌细胞内小RNA SgrS,并初步验证伴侣分子Hfq蛋白和RNaseE降解酶对小RNA SgrS定位的影响.选取大肠杆菌模式菌MG1655 (野生株)、sgrS敲除株(△sgrS)和过表达株(△sgrS-pBAD-SgrS),使用RNA印迹和smFISH方法验证SgrS的过表达.应用smFISH方法分别在野生菌株、hfq敲除株(△hfq)和rne敲除株(△rne-710)中定位小RNA SgrS和ptsG mRNA,超分辨成像观察.与野生株相比,△hfq和△rne-710中SgrS主要定位于近膜区域,ptsG mRNA定位于细菌胞浆中,并且这两种RNA拷贝数均极显著增加.以上结果表明,分别敲除大肠杆菌hfq和rne-710基因导致SgrS和ptsG mRNA的表达量增加. smFISH方法和超分辨技术的结合应用为细菌RNA的直观定量和定位提供了高敏感性的检测方法,可用于基因调控的功能研究.     

MicroRNA研究进展

MicroRNA(miRNA)是生物体内源长度约为21-25个核苷酸的非编码小RNA,通过与靶mRNA互补配对而在转录水平上对基因的表达进行负调控,导致mRNA的翻译抑制或降解。miRNA虽然微小,但它在真核生物发育和基因表达中通过与靶mRNA形成完全或不完全互补配对从而扮演着重要角色。它们参与动物体发育、细胞增殖与死亡、细胞分化等各种过程。综述了miRNA的发现、生物合成、特征与功能、靶基因的预测等方面的研究进展。     

细菌非编码小RNA的筛选及鉴定方法

细菌非编码小RNA（smallnon．codingRNAs,sRNAs）是一类长度为50～500nt、不编码蛋白质的功能RNA,在应对胁迫、毒力产生和新陈代谢等生命过程中起重要的调控作用。其主要通过碱基配对与靶mRNA发生作用,导致mRNA翻译和稳定性改变,从而在转录后水平调节基因的表达,最终影响细菌各种生命活动。近年来,利用生物信息学和分子生物学技术,已在细菌中筛选并鉴定得到了几百个sRNA。该文对细菌sRNA的筛选和鉴定方法作一简要综述。     

Translational control and target recognition by Escherichia coli small RNAs in vivo

Small non-coding RNAs (sRNAs) are an emerging class of regulators of bacterial gene expression. Most of the regulatory Escherichia coli sRNAs known to date modulate translation of trans-encoded target mRNAs. We studied the specificity of sRNA target interactions using gene fusions to green fluorescent protein (GFP) as a novel reporter of translational control by bacterial sRNAs in vivo. Target sequences were selected from both monocistronic and polycistronic mRNAs. Upon expression of the cognate sRNA (DsrA, GcvB, MicA, MicC, MicF, RprA, RyhB, SgrS and Spot42), we observed highly specific translation repression/activation of target fusions under various growth conditions. Target regulation was also tested in mutants that lacked Hfq or RNase III, or which expressed a truncated RNase E (rne701). We found that translational regulation by these sRNAs was largely independent of full-length RNase E, e.g. despite the fact that ompA fusion mRNA decay could no longer be promoted by MicA. This is the first study in which multiple well-defined E.coli sRNA target pairs have been studied in a uniform manner in vivo. We expect our GFP fusion approach to be applicable to sRNA targets of other bacteria, and also demonstrate that Vibrio RyhB sRNA represses a Vibrio sodB fusion when co-expressed in E.coli.     

Identification of bacterial sRNA regulatory targets using ribosome profiling

Bacteria express large numbers of non-coding, regulatory RNAs known as ‘small RNAs’ (sRNAs). sRNAs typically regulate expression of multiple target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) through base-pairing interactions. sRNA:mRNA base-pairing often results in altered mRNA stability and/or altered translation initiation. Computational identification of sRNA targets is challenging due to the requirement for only short regions of base-pairing that can accommodate mismatches. Experimental approaches have been applied to identify sRNA targets on a genomic scale, but these focus only on those targets regulated at the level of mRNA stability. Here, we utilize ribosome profiling (Ribo-seq) to experimentally identify regulatory targets of the Escherichia coli sRNA RyhB. We not only validate a majority of known RyhB targets using the Ribo-seq approach, but also discover many novel ones. We further confirm regulation of a selection of known and novel targets using targeted reporter assays. By mutating nucleotides in the mRNA of a newly discovered target, we demonstrate direct regulation of this target by RyhB. Moreover, we show that Ribo-seq distinguishes between mRNAs regulated at the level of RNA stability and those regulated at the level of translation. Thus, Ribo-seq represents a powerful approach for genome-scale identification of sRNA targets.     

Systemic delivery of siRNA in pumpkin by a plant PHLOEM SMALL RNA‐BINDING PROTEIN 1–ribonucleoprotein complex

In plants, the vascular system, specifically the phloem, functions in delivery of small RNA (sRNA) to exert epigenetic control over developmental and defense‐related processes. Although the importance of systemic sRNA delivery has been established, information is currently lacking concerning the nature of the protein machinery involved in this process. Here, we show that a PHLOEM SMALL‐RNA BINDING PROTEIN 1 (PSRP1) serves as the basis for formation of an sRNA ribonucleoprotein complex (sRNPC) that delivers sRNA (primarily 24 nt) to sink organs. Assembly of this complex is facilitated through PSRP1 phosphorylation by a phloem‐localized protein kinase, PSRPK1. During long‐distance transport, PSRP1–sRNPC is stable against phloem phosphatase activity. Within target tissues, phosphatase activity results in disassembly of PSRP1–sRNPC, a process that is probably required for unloading cargo sRNA into surrounding cells. These findings provide an insight into the mechanism involved in delivery of sRNA associated with systemic gene silencing in plants.     

RyhB small RNA modulates the free intracellular iron pool and is essential for normal growth during iron limitation in Escherichia coli

The small RNA RyhB has recently been shown to negatively regulate a number of mRNAs encoding dispensable iron-using proteins in Escherichia coli. The resulting decrease in the synthesis of iron-using proteins is thought to spare iron in order to ensure its availability for iron-requiring proteins that are indispensable. Indeed, the expression of RyhB from a heterologous promoter activates the iron-sensing repressor Fur, which suggests an increase in the pool of free intracellular iron (iron-sparing). In accordance with these observations, we report here that RyhB expression increases the concentration of free intracellular iron, as shown by direct measurements of the metal in whole cells by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. Our data also suggest that iron-sparing originates from rapid uptake of extracellular iron and not from already internalized metal. Furthermore, RyhB is shown to be essential for normal bacterial growth and survival during iron starvation, which is consistent with previous data describing the function of the small RNA. Overall, our data demonstrate that, by regulating synthesis of nonessential iron-using proteins, the small RNA RyhB ensures that the iron is directed towards the iron-requiring enzymes that are indispensable.     

Antagonistic functions between the RNA chaperone Hfq and an sRNA regulate sensitivity to the antibiotic colicin

The RNA chaperone Hfq is a key regulator of the function of small RNAs (sRNAs). Hfq has been shown to facilitate sRNAs binding to target mRNAs and to directly regulate translation through the action of sRNAs. Here, we present evidence that Hfq acts as the repressor of cirA mRNA translation in the absence of sRNA. Hfq binding to cirA prevents translation initiation, which correlates with cirA mRNA instability. In contrast, RyhB pairing to cirA mRNA promotes changes in RNA structure that displace Hfq, thereby allowing efficient translation as well as mRNA stabilization. Because CirA is a receptor for the antibiotic colicin Ia, in addition to acting as an Fur (Ferric Uptake Regulator)‐regulated siderophore transporter, translational activation of cirA mRNA by RyhB promotes colicin sensitivity under conditions of iron starvation. Altogether, these results indicate that Fur and RyhB modulate an unexpected feed‐forward loop mechanism related to iron physiology and colicin sensitivity.     

The small RNA RyhB activates the translation of shiA mRNA encoding a permease of shikimate, a compound involved in siderophore synthesis

RyhB is a small RNA (sRNA) that downregulates about 20 genes involved in iron metabolism. It is expressed under low iron conditions and pairs with specific mRNAs to trigger their rapid degradation by the RNA degradosome. In contrast to this, another study has suggested that RyhB also activates several genes by increasing their mRNA level. Among these activated genes is shiA, which encodes a permease of shikimate, an aromatic compound participating in the biosynthesis of siderophores. Here, we demonstrate in vivo and in vitro that RyhB directly pairs at the 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR) of the shiA mRNA to disrupt an intrinsic inhibitory structure that sequesters the ribosome-binding site (Shine-Dalgarno) and the first translation codon. This is the first demonstration of direct gene activation by RyhB, which has been exclusively described in degradation of mRNAs. Our physiological results indicate that the transported compound of the ShiA permease, shikimate, is important under conditions of RyhB expression, that is, iron starvation. This is demonstrated by growth assays in which shikimate or the siderophore enterochelin correct the growth defect observed for a ryhB mutant in iron-limited media.     

The tricarboxylic acid cycle in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Shewanella oneidensis</Emphasis> is independent of Fur and RyhB control

Background  

It is well established in E. coli and Vibrio cholerae that strains harboring mutations in the ferric uptake regulator gene (fur) are unable to utilize tricarboxylic acid (TCA) compounds, due to the down-regulation of key TCA cycle enzymes, such as AcnA and SdhABCD. This down-regulation is mediated by a Fur-regulated small regulatory RNA named RyhB. It is unclear in the γ-proteobacterium S. oneidensis whether TCA is also regulated by Fur and RyhB.     

Cycling of the Sm-like protein Hfq on the DsrA small regulatory RNA

Small RNAs (sRNAs) regulate bacterial genes involved in environmental adaptation. This RNA regulation requires Hfq, a bacterial Sm-like protein that stabilizes sRNAs and enhances RNA-RNA interactions. To understand the mechanism of target recognition by sRNAs, we investigated the interactions between Hfq, the sRNA DsrA, and its regulatory target rpoS mRNA, which encodes the stress response sigma factor. Nuclease footprinting revealed that Hfq recognized multiple sites in rpoS mRNA without significantly perturbing secondary structure in the 5' leader that inhibits translation initiation. Base-pairing with DsrA, however, made the rpoS ribosome binding site fully accessible, as predicted by genetic data. Hfq bound DsrA four times more tightly than the DsrA.rpoS RNA complex in gel mobility-shift assays. Consequently, Hfq is displaced rapidly from its high-affinity binding site on DsrA by conformational changes in DsrA, when DsrA base-pairs with rpoS mRNA. Hfq accelerated DsrA.rpoS RNA association and stabilized the RNA complex up to twofold. Hybridization of DsrA and rpoS mRNA was optimal when Hfq occupied its primary binding site on free DsrA, but was inhibited when Hfq associated with the DsrA.rpoS RNA complex. We conclude that recognition of rpoS mRNA is stimulated by binding of Hfq to free DsrA sRNA, followed by release of Hfq from the sRNA.mRNA complex.