骨骼肌中肌浆网/内质网钙ATP酶的功能及其作用机制

骨骼肌是机体生命活动和能量代谢的重要场所,其代谢紊乱会诱发一系列肌肉疾病。Ca²⁺作为肌肉收缩过程的重要调节器,在骨骼肌的功能行使中发挥重要作用。骨骼肌细胞中Ca²⁺浓度主要受肌浆网/内质网钙ATP酶(sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ATPase,SERCA)的调节。SERCA利用ATP水解产生的能量介导胞质Ca²⁺进入肌浆网内腔,维持胞质Ca²⁺平衡。SERCA功能的失调会引发一系列骨骼肌疾病,而SERCA活性受部分肌浆网蛋白质的调控,跨膜蛋白质PLN、SLN、MRLN、DWORF和sAnk1以及胞质蛋白质THADA和SAR,其通过磷酸化,进而调控SERCA的功能。本文对骨骼肌中SERCA的功能、调控SERCA的相关功能蛋白质的结构及其作用机制进行了总结,以期为骨骼肌相关疾病的治疗提供最新的思路和方法。     

贝母提取物对异丙肾上腺素诱导心肌H9c2细胞肥大的干预作用

目的: 研究贝母提取物(FE)对异丙肾上腺素(Iso)诱导H9c2 心肌细胞肥大(CH)的干预作用。方法: 采用体外培养心肌H9c2 细胞,MTT法测定心肌H9c2细胞存活率; 细胞分4组(n=10):对照组、2 μmol/L Iso (模型)组、2 μmol/L Iso+FE 400 μg/L 组、2 μmol/LIso+FE 1 000 μg/L 组;相差显微镜观察细胞形态及测定心肌细胞直径;二辛可酸法检测细胞总蛋白;钙-4 试剂检测细胞内钙离子浓度。结果: Iso 组心肌H9c2细胞直径、总蛋白量及[Ca²⁺]i均显著高于对照组(P＜0.01);400 μg/ml 和1 000 μg/ml FE各组心肌H9c2细胞直径、总蛋白量及细胞[Ca²⁺]i均显著低于Iso组 (P＜0.05 或P＜0.01)。结论: FE对Iso诱导H9c2 CH有干预作用,可能与抑制钙信号通路激活有关。     

植物钙/钙调素介导的信号转导系统

钙离子(Ca²⁺)是一种重要的第二信使, 参与调节植物的生长发育和对环境的适应。钙调素(CaM)和类钙调蛋白(CML)是一类最主要的Ca²⁺感受器, 虽然其自身没有催化活性, 但可通过调节下游靶蛋白的活性, 进而调控细胞的各种生理活动。该文总结了植物体内CaM结合蛋白(CBP)的生理功能、鉴定方法和调控机理, 以及CaM介导的信号转导途径, 包括蛋白磷酸化与去磷酸化、基因转录、离子运输、活性氧代谢、激素和磷脂信号等, 并对今后的研究方向进行了展望。     

抗阻训练对增龄大鼠骨骼肌线粒体功能的影响*

目的: 从线粒体动力学的角度,探讨抗阻运动对增龄大鼠骨骼肌线粒体功能的影响。方法: 40只雄性SD大鼠随机分为4组:2月龄安静对照组(C1组)、2月龄抗阻运动训练组(R1组)、6月龄安静对照组(C2组)、6月龄抗阻运动训练组(R2组),每组10只。C1、C2组正常喂养,R1、R2组大鼠进行跑台坡度为35°,速度为15 m/min的抗阻运动,一次跑动15 s,间歇30 s,4次为一组,组间间歇3 min,3组为一次循环,一天为2个循环,循环间歇10 min,每周6 d,共8周。采用Western blot法测定各组大鼠股四头肌线粒体融合蛋白2(Mfn2)、GTP酶1(DRP1) 蛋白含量,使用流式细胞仪测定各组大鼠股四头肌线粒体膜电位(ΔΨm)、活性氧(ROS)和游离钙(Ca²⁺)水平。结果: ① 与C1组相比,R1组大鼠DRP1蛋白升高(P＜0.01)、Mfn2蛋白无显著变化,C2组大鼠DRP1、Mfn2蛋白均降低(P均＜0.01);与C2组相比,R2组大鼠DRP1、Mfn2蛋白均升高(P＜0.01,P＜0.05);与R1组相比,R2组DRP1、Mfn2蛋白均降低(P＜0.01,P＜0.05)。② 与C1组相比,R1组Ca²⁺含量降低(P＜0.01)、C2组Ca²⁺含量升高(P＜0.01);与C2组相比,R2组Ca²⁺含量降低(P＜0.01);与R1组相比,R2组Ca²⁺含量升高(P＜0.01)。③ 与C1组相比,R1组ROS含量有所上升,但无显著性差异,C2组ROS含量升高(P＜0.01);与C2组相比,R2组ROS含量降低(P＜0.01);与R1组相比,R2组ROS含量升高(P＜0.01)。④ 与C1组相比,C2组ΔΨm降低(P＜0.01);与C2组相比,R2组ΔΨm升高(P＜0.01);与R1组相比,R2组ΔΨm有所降低,但无统计学差异。结论: 大鼠增龄过程中股四头肌线粒体出现Ca²⁺堆积、活性氧增多、线粒体膜电位下降、融合蛋白减少等现象,抗阻训练可有效改善这些变化。     

α1-肾上腺素受体对胶原诱导性关节炎小鼠Treg细胞功能的影响*

目的: 利用胶原诱导性关节炎 (CIA) 模型小鼠,探讨去甲肾上腺素 (NE) 及其α1-肾上腺素受体 (AR ) 对CIA小鼠Treg细胞的作用。方法: 雄性DBA/1小鼠 32 只,随机分为对照组 (n=8) 和CIA模型组 (n=24)。II型胶原 (CII) 乳剂100 μl 尾根部注射DBA/1小鼠制备CIA小鼠模型,在初次免疫后第 41 日,用免疫荧光法检测小鼠脾脏中CD4⁺T与α1-AR的共定位情况;用Western blot法检测小鼠踝关节和脾脏中α1-AR的蛋白表达。分离纯化CIA小鼠脾脏中CD4⁺ T细胞,用抗CD3和抗CD28的单克隆抗体刺激CD4⁺T细胞,进行细胞培养,分为未加药组和加药组,加药组用NE或α1-AR激动剂苯肾上腺素 (phenylephrine) 处理细胞,用流式细胞术检测CIA小鼠CD4⁺T细胞中Treg的细胞数;用Western blot法检测CIA小鼠CD4⁺T中转化生长因子-β (TGF-β) 和IL-10的蛋白表达。结果: CD4⁺ T细胞能够表达α1-AR;与对照组相比,CIA小鼠踝关节和脾脏中α1-AR的蛋白表达显著降低(P＜0.01);与未加药的CIA小鼠的CD4⁺ T细胞相比,NE加入后的CIA小鼠CD4⁺ T细胞中Treg细胞的功能显著增强(P＜0.01);α1-AR激动剂phenylephrine加入后的CIA小鼠CD4⁺ T细胞中Treg细胞的功能显著增强(P＜ 0.01)。结论: 激活CIA小鼠CD4⁺ T细胞上的α1-AR可增强Treg细胞的功能,促进CD4⁺ T细胞向Treg细胞方向分化,发挥抗炎作用。     

抗阻运动对胰岛素抵抗小鼠海马内焦亡相关蛋白的影响*

目的: 探讨胰岛素抵抗小鼠海马内焦亡相关蛋白的变化,以及抗阻训练对海马内焦亡相关蛋白的调节作用。方法: 6周龄C57BL/6J雄性小鼠随机分为对照组(C, n=12)和高脂膳食组(HFD, n=26)分别进行普通膳食或高脂膳食喂养12周。随后根据葡萄糖耐量实验(GTT)和胰岛素耐量实验(ITT)的结果,将HFD组分为胰岛素抵抗组(IR, n=10)和抗阻运动组(RT, n=10),维持高脂膳食喂养同时RT组小鼠进行抗阻训练。12周后,全部小鼠麻醉后处死,取脑并剥离出海马组织,通过Western blot检测焦亡相关蛋白的表达。结果: 与C组相比,IR组小鼠海马内NF-κB、NLRP3炎症小体、下游焦亡相关蛋白GSDMD-N和GSDMD以及炎症因子IL-1β和IL-18的蛋白表达量显著性上升(P＜0.05),SIRT1蛋白表达量以及p-AMPK蛋白水平显著性下降(P＜0.05);与IR组相比,RT组小鼠海马内NF-κB、NLRP3炎症小体、下游焦亡相关蛋白GSDMD-N和GSDMD以及炎症因子IL-1β和IL-18的蛋白表达量显著性下降(P＜0.05),SIRT1蛋白表达量以及p-AMPK蛋白水平显著性上升(P＜0.01)。结论: 胰岛素抵抗小鼠海马内NLRP3炎症小体被激活,介导海马内发生细胞焦亡;经过12周的抗阻运动可有效抑制NLRP3炎症小体激活,改善海马内细胞焦亡和炎症状态。     

有氧运动对高脂膳食小鼠心肌损伤中Nrf2/GPX4/Ferroptosis通路的作用*

目的: 探讨核因子E2相关因子2(Nrf 2)激活谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4(GPX4)抑制铁死亡(Ferroptosis)的通路在有氧运动预防高脂膳食小鼠心肌损伤中的保护作用。方法: 40只5周龄SPF 级C57BL/6雄性小鼠随机分为安静对照组(NC)、运动组(NE)、高脂组(HC)和高脂+运动组(HE,高脂与跑台运动同时开始),每组10只。高脂膳食采用60% Kcal SPF级高脂模型饲料喂养,自由进食。有氧运动采用递增负荷跑台运动,每周5 d,60 min/d,速度从13 m/min开始,每两周速度递增1 m/min。14周后取心肌和血液。HE染色观察心肌组织结构变化。Western blot 检测心肌Nrf2/GPX4/ Ferroptosis相关蛋白表达。分光光度法测定心肌过氧化物浓度和抗氧化酶活性。ELISA法检测心肌线粒体8-OHdG和血清胰岛素水平。结果: 与对照组相比,高脂组的心肌纤维间隙脂质集聚增加,FBG和FINS显著增加,而ISI显著下降(P＜0.01);与高脂组相比,高脂运动组的心肌纤维间隙脂质集聚减少, T-AOC、T-SOD、GSH活性显著增强,心肌线粒体8-OHdG和心肌铁含量降低(P＜0.01),FPN1、FTH1、GPX4、GLUT1和细胞核内Nrf2显著升高(P＜0.01)。结论: 有氧运动可促进小鼠心肌Nrf2转位入核增强GPX4表达,抑制心肌Ferroptosis发生,同时促进心肌抗氧化酶活性,抑制心肌线粒体过氧化损伤。     

薯蓣皂苷对大鼠心肌收缩与钠-钙交换体的影响

目的：观察薯蓣皂苷（Dio）对大鼠心肌收缩作用以及胞内Ca²⁺浓度的影响,并初步探讨其作用机制与Na⁺-Ca²⁺交换体（NCX）的关系。方法：采用Langendorff逆行主动脉灌流法对大鼠离体心脏进行灌流,利用压力感受器插管法测定左心室相关心功能参数,记录及其在应用NCX选择性抑制剂SEA0400情况下对左心室收缩压（LVSP）、左心室舒张末期压（LVEDP）、左心室内压最大上升/下降速率（±dp/dt_max）以及心率（HR）的影响;利用激光共聚焦显微观察薯蓣皂苷及SEA0400对大鼠心肌细胞H9c2细胞内Ca²⁺浓度的影响。结果：离体心脏灌流结果显示,1 μmol/L Dio可显著增加LVSP,增加约19.7%（P<0.01）;增加左室内压最大上升速率（+dp/dt_max）,增加约9.6%;激光共聚焦测定Ca²⁺荧光强度实验结果显示：1 μmol/L Dio可使H9c2细胞中Ca²⁺相对荧光强度增加（P<0.01）;而在SEA0400存在的情况下,1 μmol/L的Dio使细胞内Ca²⁺相对荧光强度变为（17.09±0.63）,给予Dio后差异有显著性（P<0.01）。在细胞液中无Ca²⁺或无Na⁺时,给予1 μmol/L的Dio使Ca²⁺相对荧光强度减小,与给予1 μmol/L的Dio差异有显著性（P<0.01）。结论：Dio可增加左心室收缩压和最大上升速率,表现正性肌力作用;Dio可使细胞内Ca²⁺浓度增加,其作用机制与增加Na⁺内流,促进NCX反向转运有关。     

溴氰菊酯对神经细胞钙通道和 钙库的激活作用

应用膜片钳全细胞记录方式和显微荧光测钙技术,以MN9D神经细胞为材料研究了溴氰菊酯的作用机理。低浓度(10^-9 mol/L～10^-7 mol/L)溴氰菊酯就能使神经细胞Ca²⁺电流显著增加。10^-9 mol/L,1 min时电流增加平均值为20.64%,5 min时为15.48%,表明溴氰菊酯能激活高电位激活钙通道(L型和N型),促使Ca²⁺内流,显微荧光测定细胞内自由钙离子浓度（［Ca²⁺］_I）发现,在含Ca²⁺和无Ca²⁺的胞外液中,溴氰菊酯均能使胞内自由钙离子数量增加,表明它能刺激胞内钙库释放Ca²⁺。［Ca²⁺］_I升高对细胞功能影响很大。     

针刺对大鼠运动性骨骼肌损伤内质网应激的干预作用及机制

目的: 观察针刺对大鼠运动性骨骼肌损伤内质网功能酶SERCA、PDI、内质网应激标志蛋白GRP78和PERK通路的影响,探讨针刺防治运动性骨骼肌损伤的内质网途径作用机制。方法: 8周龄雄性SD大鼠随机分为空白对照组(C组,n=6)、单纯运动组(E组,n=30)、针刺对照组(A组,n=30)和运动针刺组(EA组,n=30)。其中,E组和EA组通过一次离心运动建立运动性骨骼肌损伤模型,EA组在运动后即刻于大鼠小腿跟腱上0.5 cm施以针刺干预,A组在同期施以针刺干预。各组根据运动和针刺干预后不同取材时间点分为0 h/12 h/24 h/48 h/72 h亚组(n=6),在对应时相取比目鱼肌进行指标测试。透射电镜观察肌纤维超微机构;ELISA法测定Ca²⁺-ATP酶(SERCA)和蛋白二硫键异构酶(PDI)含量;Western blot检测内质网应激标志蛋白GRP78及p-PERK、p-eIF2α表达。结果: 与C组比较,A组指标各时相均无显著差异(P＞0.05),E组肌纤维超微结构出现不同损伤,SERCA含量0 h至48 h均显著降低(P＜0.05),PDI含量0 h显著升高(P＜0.05),GRP78表达0 h至72 h均显著升高(P＜ 0.05),p-PERK表达0 h至24 h显著升高(P＜0.05), p-eIF2α表达与p-PERK一致;与E组对应时相比较,EA组肌纤维超微结构明显改善,SERCA含量48 h和72 h显著升高(P＜0.05),PDI含量0 h至72 h均显著升高(P＜0.05),GRP78表达0 h至72 h均显著降低(P＜0.05),p-PERK和p-eIF2α表达12 h和24 h显著降低(P＜0.05)。结论: 针刺可有效改善一次大负荷离心运动后导致的运动性骨骼肌损伤并缓解内质网应激,其机制可能与上调蛋白二硫键异构酶PDI以及抑制内质网应激PERK通路有关。     

Altered function and regulation of cardiac ryanodine receptors in cardiac disease

In cardiac muscle, the ryanodine receptor (RyR2) on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) releases the calcium required for muscle contraction. The magnitude of Ca²⁺ release by RyR2, which is subject to regulation by several physiological mediators, determines cardiac contractility. In heart failure, chronic stimulation of the β-adrenergic signaling pathway leads to hyperphosphorylation of RyR2 by protein kinase A, which dissociates calstabin2 (FKBP12.6) from the receptor. Calstabin2-depleted channels display altered channel gating and can cause diastolic Ca²⁺ release from the SR. This release depletes the SR Ca²⁺ stores, leading to reduced myocardial contractility. Mutant RyR2, found in patients with catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, has decreased calstabin2 binding affinity, which can trigger ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death after stress and exercise. Thus, defects in RyR2 have been linked to heart failure and exercise-induced sudden cardiac death and might provide novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of these common diseases of the heart.     

Alterations of the Ca2+ signaling pathway in pancreatic beta-cells isolated from db/db mice

Upon glucose elevation, pancreatic beta-cells secrete insulin in a Ca²⁺-dependent manner. In diabetic animal models, different aspects of the calcium signaling pathway in beta-cells are altered, but there is no consensus regarding their relative contributions to the development of beta-cell dysfunction. In this study, we compared the increase in cytosolic Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_i) via Ca²⁺ influx, Ca²⁺ mobilization from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium stores, and the removal of Ca²⁺ via multiple mechanisms in beta-cells from both diabetic db/db mice and nondiabetic C57BL/6J mice. We refined our previous quantitative model to describe the slow [Ca²⁺]_i recovery after depolarization in beta-cells from db/db mice. According to the model, the activity levels of the two subtypes of the sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase (SERCA) pump, SERCA2 and SERCA3, were severely down-regulated in diabetic cells to 65% and 0% of the levels in normal cells. This down-regulation may lead to a reduction in the Ca²⁺ concentration in the ER, a compensatory up-regulation of the plasma membrane Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger (NCX) and a reduction in depolarizationevoked Ca²⁺ influx. As a result, the patterns of glucosestimulated calcium oscillations were significantly different in db/db diabetic beta-cells compared with normal cells. Overall, quantifying the changes in the calcium signaling pathway in db/db diabetic beta-cells will aid in the development of a disease model that could provide insight into the adaptive transformations of beta-cell function during diabetes development.     

Microarray profiling of skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum proteins

Microarrays were developed to profile the level of proteins associated with calcium regulation in sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) isolated from porcine Longissimus muscle. The microarrays consisted of SR preparations printed onto to glass slides and probed with monoclonal antibodies to 7 target proteins. Proteins investigated included: ryanodine receptor, (RyR), dihydropyridine receptor, (DHPR), triadin (TRI), calsequestrin (CSQ), 90 kDa junctional protein (JSR90), and fast-twitch and slow-twitch SR calcium ATPases (SERCA1 and SERCA2). Signal from a fluorescently-labeled detection antibody was measured and quantitated using a slide reader. The microarray developed was also employed to profile Longissimus muscle SR proteins from halothane genotyped animals. Significant (P<0.05) reductions in levels of several proteins were found including: RyR, CSQ, TRI, DHPR and SERCA2 in SR samples from halothane positive animals. The results illustrate the potential of microarrays as a tool for profiling SR proteins and aiding investigations of calcium regulation.     

Inhibition of CaMKII Does Not Attenuate Cardiac Hypertrophy in Mice with Dysfunctional Ryanodine Receptor

In cardiac muscle, the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum through ryanodine receptor ion channels (RyR2s) leads to muscle contraction. RyR2 is negatively regulated by calmodulin (CaM) and by phosphorylation of Ca²⁺/CaM-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). Substitution of three amino acid residues in the CaM binding domain of RyR2 (RyR2-W3587A/L3591D/F3603A, RyR2^ADA) impairs inhibition of RyR2 by CaM and results in cardiac hypertrophy and early death of mice carrying the RyR2^ADA mutation. To test the cellular function of CaMKII in cardiac hypertrophy, mutant mice were crossed with mice expressing the CaMKII inhibitory AC3-I peptide or the control AC3-C peptide in the myocardium. Inhibition of CaMKII by AC3-I modestly reduced CaMKII-dependent phosphorylation of RyR2 at Ser-2815 and markedly reduced CaMKII-dependent phosphorylation of SERCA2a regulatory subunit phospholamban at Thr-17. However the average life span and heart-to-body weight ratio of Ryr2^ADA/ADA mice expressing the inhibitory peptide were not altered compared to control mice. In Ryr2^ADA/ADA homozygous mice, AC3-I did not alter cardiac morphology, enhance cardiac function, improve sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ handling, or suppress the expression of genes implicated in cardiac remodeling. The results suggest that CaMKII was not required for the rapid development of cardiac hypertrophy in Ryr2^ADA/ADA mice.     

Morphology and molecular composition of sarcoplasmic reticulum surface junctions in the absence of DHPR and RyR in mouse skeletal muscle

Calcium release during excitation-contraction coupling of skeletal muscle cells is initiated by the functional interaction of the exterior membrane and the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), mediated by the "mechanical" coupling of ryanodine receptors (RyR) and dihydropyridine receptors (DHPR). RyR is the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) release channel and DHPR is an L-type calcium channel of exterior membranes (surface membrane and T tubules), which acts as the voltage sensor of excitation-contraction coupling. The two proteins communicate with each other at junctions between SR and exterior membranes called calcium release units and are associated with several proteins of which triadin and calsequestrin are the best characterized. Calcium release units are present in diaphragm muscles and hind limb derived primary cultures of double knock out mice lacking both DHPR and RyR. The junctions show coupling between exterior membranes and SR, and an apparently normal content and disposition of triadin and calsequestrin. Therefore SR-surface docking, targeting of triadin and calsequestrin to the junctional SR domains and the structural organization of the two latter proteins are not affected by lack of DHPR and RyR. Interestingly, simultaneous lack of the two major excitation-contraction coupling proteins results in decrease of calcium release units frequency in the diaphragm, compared with either single knockout mutation.     

Effects of Basal [Ca]i on Calcium Handling in Ca-Overloaded Rat Cultured Heart Muscle Cells

To elucidate the relationship between intracellular free Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) and Ca²⁺-signalling by the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) in Ca²⁺-overloaded heart muscle cells, the direct effects of “basal” [Ca²⁺]_i on calcium waves were investigated by altering the membrane potential. When basal inter-calcium wave (BCW) [Ca²⁺]_i was maintained at a high level, (i) calcium waves showed more gradual and more rapidly suppressed increase in [Ca²⁺]-profile (P < 0.005), and (ii) calcium waves occurred at a significantly higher frequency and velocity (259% and 137%), than when low BCW [Ca²⁺]_i was maintained. Similar investigations on inhibition of the Na⁺-Ca²⁺ exchanger, however, showed that membrane potential did not elicit direct effects on calcium waves. These results showed that the elevation of BCW [Ca²⁺]_i per se directly influences Ca²⁺-signalling in heart muscle cells through non-equilibrated release-restoration Ca²⁺-handling by the SR.     

Ca2+ signalling and muscle disease.

Transient elevations of intracellular Ca2+ play a signalling role in such complex cellular functions as contraction, secretion, fertilization, proliferation, metabolism, heartbeat and memory. However, prolonged elevation of Ca2+ above about 10 microM is deleterious to a cell and can activate apoptosis. In muscle, there is a narrow window of Ca2+ dysregulation in which abnormalities in Ca2+ regulatory proteins can lead to disease, rather than apoptosis. Key proteins in the regulation of muscle Ca2+ are the voltage-dependent, dihydropyridine-sensitive, L-type Ca2+ channels located in the transverse tubule and Ca2+ release channels in the junctional terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Abnormalities in these proteins play a key role in malignant hyperthermia (MH), a toxic response to anesthetics, and in central core disease (CCD), a muscle myopathy. Sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPases (SERCAs) return sarcoplasmic Ca2+ to the lumen of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Loss of SERCA1a Ca2+ pump function is one cause of exercise-induced impairment of the relaxation of skeletal muscle, in Brody disease. Phospholamban expressed in cardiac muscle and sarcolipin expressed in skeletal muscle regulate SERCA activity. Studies with knockout and transgenic mice show that gain of inhibitory function of phospholamban alters cardiac contractility and could be a causal feature in some cardiomyopathies. Calsequestrin, calreticulin, and a series of other acidic, lumenal, Ca2+ binding proteins provide a buffer for Ca2+ stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Overexpression of cardiac calsequestrin leads to cardiomyopathy and ablation of calreticulin alters cardiac development.     

Interactions between dihydropyridine receptors and ryanodine receptors in striated muscle

Excitation-contraction coupling in both skeletal and cardiac muscle depends on structural and functional interactions between the voltage-sensing dihydropyridine receptor L-type Ca²⁺ channels in the surface/transverse tubular membrane and ryanodine receptor Ca²⁺ release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane. The channels are targeted to either side of a narrow junctional gap that separates the external and internal membrane systems and are arranged so that bi-directional structural and functional coupling can occur between the proteins. There is strong evidence for a physical interaction between the two types of channel protein in skeletal muscle. This evidence is derived from studies of excitation–contraction coupling in intact myocytes and from experiments in isolated systems where fragments of the dihydropyridine receptor can bind to the ryanodine receptors in sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles or in lipid bilayers and alter channel activity. Although micro-regions that participate in the functional interactions have been identified in each protein, the role of these regions and the molecular nature of the protein–protein interaction remain unknown. The trigger for Ca²⁺ release through ryanodine receptors in cardiac muscle is a Ca²⁺ influx through the L-type Ca²⁺ channel. The Ca²⁺ entering through the surface membrane Ca²⁺ channels flows directly onto underlying ryanodine receptors and activates the channels. This was thought to be a relatively simple system compared with that in skeletal muscle. However, complexities are emerging and evidence has now been obtained for a bi-directional physical coupling between the proteins in cardiac as well as skeletal muscle. The molecular nature of this coupling remains to be elucidated.