微透析校正的相关问题和方法

微透析技术是研究生物动态变化的一种新型的活体生物采样技术,近年来由于实验方法的不断改进,微透析技术已广泛应用于在体的定量研究。在进行生物细胞外液的定量研究中,微透析探针的校正是十分必要的。本从微透析的回收率、影响因素及校正方法等方面简要介绍了微透析校正的相关问题。     

微透析技术在猴脑递质研究中的应用

应用透析原理对脑内细胞外液中神经化学物质进行取样分析的想法已有２０多年历史,对脑内细胞外液进行分析可以更好地了解中枢神经系统的生理和病理情况,而微透析技术就是一种用来测定脑内细胞外液神经递质浓度的取样方法,随着探头设计的微型化和高灵敏度的分析方法的建立,微透析技术在许多实验室已成为一种常规实验手段,近年来,以猴脑的研究对象的微透析实验呈增长趋势,并获得了一些崭新的结果,本文介绍在猴脑上进行微透技术     

家兔关节腔中微透析探针植入方法的建立及应用

目的建立家兔关节腔中微透析探针的植入方法,并考察其应用于家兔膝关节局部药动学研究中的可行性。方法将微透析探针在注射针头、引导导管的帮助下从家兔膝关节髌韧带一侧插入关节腔中,并用x．射线检查探针活性透析膜在关节腔中的位置。以青藤碱为研究药物,HPLC—Ms为检测方法同时进行了家兔血液及关节腔局部青藤碱的药动学研究。结果微透析探针活性透析膜能准确地进入关节腔的腔隙中,并成功应用于关节局部药动学研究,得到主要药动学参数。结论家兔关节腔中微透析探针植入方法可行,位置准确,应用于关节局部药动学研究中有明显的优势。     

脑内多巴胺信号动态变化的检测方法及在成瘾研究中的应用

多巴胺是脑内重要的神经递质,中脑多巴胺系统在控制奖赏、动机、运动和情绪调节过程中起重要作用。脑内多巴胺功能紊乱与药物依赖、精神分裂症、抑郁症和帕金森氏病等神经精神障碍有关,动态测定脑内多巴胺变化对于了解多巴胺功能和揭示相关疾病病理机制具有重要意义。本文主要介绍了微透析、快速扫描循环伏安法和光纤光度法的基本原理和方法,并对比分析了这些技术在多巴胺动态检测应用中的优缺点。以药物成瘾研究为应用实例,利用微透析法发现伏隔核壳部是成瘾性药物产生奖赏效应的关键部位,快速扫描循环伏安法检测到与可卡因自身给药行为相关的三种多巴胺信号模式,而光纤光度法则揭示了酒精成瘾和复吸过程中伏隔核和中脑复侧被盖区多巴胺活动特征存在空间和时间上的多样性。这些发现为揭示药物成瘾的机制做出了重要贡献。     

氟哌利多增强电针镇痛时大鼠脑内微透析液中单胺类递质的变化

本文采用大鼠脑内微透析及高效液相色谱电化学联检技术,观察多巴胺受体拮抗剂氟哌利多加强电针镇痛时大鼠脑人微透析液中单胺类递质的变化,从而探讨药物加强针刺镇痛的机制。结果显示,ＥＡ与ＤＡ及其代谢产物高香草酸在透析液中含量增加,ＤＲＯ与ＥＡ合用后,两者的含量较单用ＥＡ又有明显增加。     

脑内微透析采样技术及其在神经科学中的应用

作为一种新的在体化学采样技术,脑内微透析引起了神经科学家的关注。它与迅速发展起来的高灵敏度的微量分析技术相结合,实现了对体内细胞外环境中化学物质变化的动态监测,从而在神经科学领域获得应用。本系统地介绍了这一新技术的原理和方法,并扼要地介绍了一这一技术在神经科学中的应用及其取得的新进展,并结合本实验室的工作经验,对该技术存在的一些问题进行了讨论。     

鼠脑微透析液痕量氨基酸的激光诱导荧光检测

使用自制微透析探针和活动体位生化取样装置以及自行组装的毛细管电泳-增强型电荷耦合器件-激光诱导荧光系统,对鼠脑透析液中的痕量氨基酸以异硫氢酸荧光黄(FITC)进行柱前衍生后进行了分离和检测. 鼠脑海马CA₃区微透析液中游离氨基酸的浓度为10^-8～10^-6 mol/L, 并将其用于学习与记忆的研究, 为无损伤研究活体脑内神经递质和其他痕量生化物质的动态变化提供了一种新方法.     

介绍一种活体在位实时监测脑内化学物质变化的新方法

介绍了一种新颖的在位实时监测脑内化学物质变化的新方法,在探头－透析电极制作中运用了酶化学,电化学和微透析技术,能连续测定行为动物脑人神经化学物质浓度的变化,并且不需要借助高效液相仪作测定^[1],同时,扼要地介绍了探头的结构以及该技术的应用。     

脑透析术——测定神经递质和神经肽释放的一种新技术

脑透析术（Ｂｒａｉｎｄｉａｌｙｓｉｓ）,又称微透析术（Ｍｉｃｒｏｄｉａｌｙｓｉｓ）是在推挽灌流基础上发展起来的一种连续灌注并采集清醒自由活动动物特定脑区内灌流液的一种新方法。该技术与高效液相色谱（ＨＰＬＣ）或放射免疫测定（ＲＩＡ）等灵敏的检测系统相结合可测定脑内细胞外液中许多神经递质如乙酰胆碱、去甲肾上腺素、多巴胺、５－羟色胺及它们的代谢产物、游离氨基酸、小的肽类、磷酸乙醇胺、维生素和各种离子等的变化。     

用毛细管电泳-激光诱发荧光技术检测清醒吗啡戒断大鼠导水管周围灰质微透析液中谷氨酸和精氨酸的含量

清醒动物脑微透析技术能够用于动态观察某一特定核团中生物活性物质变化及其与行为的关系,结合高效毛细管电泳-激光诱发荧光对衍生后的透析样品进行检测,使这一技术更趋完善。本实验用荧光素异硫氰酸酯(FITC)与痕量氨基酸样品进行衍生,通过适当增加衍生温度,能明显缩短衍生时间,衍生效果与传统的室温下衍生16h无明显差别;进一步确定30℃水浴反应5h是较理想的FITC与痕量氨基酸的衍生条件。在此优化衍生条件下,成功检测了清醒吗啡戒断大鼠脑导水管周围灰质(periaqueductal gray matter,PAG)微透析液中谷氨酸(glutamate,Glu)和精氨酸(arginine,Arg)含量变化。结果表明,非吗啡依赖和吗啡依赖大鼠脑PAG中L-精氨酸(L-arginine,L-Arg)和L-谷氨酸(L-glutamate,L-Glu)含量无明显差别,纳洛酮催促戒断后的第一个10min内PAG中的L-Arg和L-Glu含量显著增加,分别比戒断前增加了63％和105％,10min后含量逐渐下降,这种变化趋势与同时观察的吗啡戒断评分变化相一致。     

Model for Concomitant Microdialysis Sampling of the Pons and Cerebral Cortex in Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta)

Pediatric diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas are aggressive brainstem tumors that fail to respond to treatment. We hypothesize that the protective features of the pons may hinder chemotherapeutic agents from entering pontine tissue compared with cortical brain tissue. To test this hypothesis, we developed a unique nonhuman primate model using microdialysis, a continuous in vivo extracellular sampling technique, to compare drug exposure concurrently in pontine tissue, cortical tissue, CSF, and plasma after intravenous administration of chemotherapeutic agents. The surgical coordinates and approach for microdialysis cannula–probe placement were determined in 5 adult male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) by using MRI. Microdialysis cannulas–probes were implanted stereotactically in the brain, retrodialysis was performed to measure relative recovery, and a 1-h intravenous infusion of temozolomide was administered. Continuous microdialysis samples were collected from the pons and cortex over 4 h with concurrent serial plasma and CSF samples. Postsurgical verification of microdialysis cannula–probe placement was obtained via MRI in 3 macaques and by gross pathology in all 5 animals. The MRI-determined coordinates and surgical methodologies resulted in accurate microdialysis probe placement in the pons and cortex in 4 of the 5 macaques. Histologic examination from these 4 animals revealed negligible tissue damage to the pontine and cortical tissue from microdialysis. One macaque was maintained for 8 wk and had no deficits attributed to the procedure. This animal model allows for the determination of differences in CNS penetration of chemotherapeutic agents in the pons, cortex, and CSF after systemic drug administration.Abbreviations: DIPG, diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma; ECF, extracellular fluidPediatric diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPG) are aggressive tumors that cannot be surgically resected due to their location, and are resistant to chemotherapeutic and radiation therapies. As a result, children with DIPG have a dismal prognosis with median survival less than one year from diagnosis. One hypothesis for the poor efficacy of treatment is that innate CNS protective features, such as the blood–brain barrier and the blood–CSF barrier, shield the brainstem to a higher degree given its critical functions, and isolate pontine gliomas from treatment. To test this hypothesis, we developed a nonhuman primate model in rhesus monkeys to evaluate pontine tissue pharmacokinetics by using microdialysis, a continuous in vivo extracellular sampling technique based on diffusion. Microdialysis is the ‘gold standard’ for in vivo sampling methodologies in the CNS, enabling the collection of extracellular tissue fluid via passive diffusion by using a semipermeable membrane probe.A nonhuman primate model demonstrating the feasibility of microdialysis sampling from cortical brain tissue with concurrent pharmacokinetic sampling during chemotherapeutic drug administration has previously been established,^3-5,7 but there are no current animal models that measure drug penetration into the pons. The location of the pons deep within the brain, as well as the vital brainstem functions associated with the pons, present additional obstacles to accurate microdialysis probe placement and sample collection. The objectives of the current study were to develop imaging and surgical procedures for the accurate placement of a microdialysis probe within the pons of rhesus monkeys for sample collection, to establish a method to perform microdialysis simultaneously in multiple CNS regions, and to develop a mechanism to perform repeated microdialysis in the same areas with a single invasive surgical procedure. This model allows for the pharmacokinetic comparison of drug penetration into pontine tissue, in conjunction with cortical tissue, plasma, and CSF, after intravenous administration.     

Application of in vivo microdialysis to the study of cholinergic systems

The application of in vivo microdialysis to the study of acetylcholine (ACh) release has contributed greatly to our understanding of cholinergic brain systems. This article reviews standard experimental procedures for dialysis probe selection and implantation, perfusion parameters, neurochemical detection, and data analysis as they relate to microdialysis assessments of cholinergic function. Particular attention is focused on the unique methodological considerations that arise when in vivo microdialysis is dedicated expressly to the recovery and measurement of ACh as opposed to other neurotransmitters. Limitations of the microdialysis technique are discussed, as well as methodological adaptations that may prove useful in overcoming these limitations. This is followed by an overview of recent studies in which the application of in vivo microdialysis has been used to characterize the basic pharmacology and physiology of cholinergic neurons. Finally, the usefulness of the microdialysis approach for testing hypotheses regarding the cholinergic systems' involvement in cognitive processes is examined. It can be concluded that, in addition to being a versatile and practical method for studying the neurochemistry of cholinergic brain systems, in vivo microdialysis represents a valuable tool in our efforts to better comprehend ACh's underlying role in a variety of behavioral processes.     

In vivo Microdialysis of 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic Acid and Glutamic Acid in the Hamster Suprachiasmatic Nuclei

SYNOPSIS. The technique of in vivo brain microdialysis rapidlyis becoming a popular tool for research on the neurochemicalbasis of physiological and behavioral functions. The presentstudy describes the application of microdialysis to investigatethe endogenous release of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA)and glutamic acid in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of hamsters.There were apparent circadian patterns of release of both ofthese neurosecretions, with peak levels occurring during thedark phase. Pharmacological manipulations of serotonin releaseand reuptake, using tetrodotoxin and citalopram, respectively,provided evidence that the nocturnal increase in 5-HIAA reflectsan increase in serotonergic synaptic activity, rather than intraneuronalmetabolism of unreleased serotonin. These results illustratethe usefulness of the microdialysis technique for studies onthe neurochemistry of central pacemaker function.     

Microdialysis combined with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of 6-aminobutylphthalide and its main metabolite in the brains of awake freely-moving rats

6-Aminobutylphthalide (ABP) is a new drug candidate which is currently being developed for the treatment of cerebral ischemia. The pharmacokinetics and metabolism of ABP were studied using in situ microdialysis sampling in the brains of awake freely-moving rats. Two LC-MS/MS methods were used for the quantitative and qualitative analysis of microdialysate. For comparison and confirmation, brain tissue samples were also analyzed by LC-MS/MS and GC/MS. The results described provide more authentic information in pharmacokinetics and metabolism at the site of action by using the coupling of microdialysis to LC-MS/MS technique than the traditional sampling methods.     

Microdialysis: intraoperative and posttraumatic applications in neurosurgery

Microdialysis offers a unique opportunity to study the extracellular human brain environment. Our aim was to improve the ability to detect neuronal injury in patients undergoing complicated neurovascular procedures and to detect secondary brain lesions after severe head injury with the use of in vivo microdialytic monitoring. We employed intraoperative microdialysis monitoring in patients with a variety of neurovascular procedures including high-flow and low-flow bypass surgery and aneurysm clipping. In the second group there were patients after severe brain injury where in vivo microdialysis was performed as a bedside monitoring in the intensive care unit. In this review we present our results for these various groups of patients, in which a variety of neurochemical parameters which are known to change in ischemia were studied. The advantages and disadvantages of the technique are discussed. Our results show that microdialysis is a useful tool for detecting ischemic changes intraoperatively and in severe head trauma. However, further studies are needed to get more data and to better refine the online microdialysis technique before we can recommend it for routine clinical use.     

Principal component analysis of the cytokine and chemokine response to human traumatic brain injury

There is a growing realisation that neuro-inflammation plays a fundamental role in the pathology of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). This has led to the search for biomarkers that reflect these underlying inflammatory processes using techniques such as cerebral microdialysis. The interpretation of such biomarker data has been limited by the statistical methods used. When analysing data of this sort the multiple putative interactions between mediators need to be considered as well as the timing of production and high degree of statistical co-variance in levels of these mediators. Here we present a cytokine and chemokine dataset from human brain following human traumatic brain injury and use principal component analysis and partial least squares discriminant analysis to demonstrate the pattern of production following TBI, distinct phases of the humoral inflammatory response and the differing patterns of response in brain and in peripheral blood. This technique has the added advantage of making no assumptions about the Relative Recovery (RR) of microdialysis derived parameters. Taken together these techniques can be used in complex microdialysis datasets to summarise the data succinctly and generate hypotheses for future study.     

Capillary electrophoresis and microdialysis: current technology and applications

Microdialysis sampling has become an important method for the continuous monitoring from an in vivo environment. This technique has been used to monitor many endogenous molecules, such as neurotransmitters, as well as exogenous species such as drug substances. Microdialysis samples have traditionally been analyzed by liquid chromatographic (LC) methods to gain resolution and quantification of the molecules of interest. However, LC separations have a relatively large injection volume requirement which, as a consequence, increases microdialysis sampling times. Capillary electrophoresis (CE), with its very small sample volume requirements and high resolving power, has therefore gained popularity as an alternative to LC. Reviewed here are many of the technologies currently available for CE and examples of how this technique has been effectively applied to the analysis of microdialysis samples.     

Simultaneous blood and biliary sampling of esculetin by microdialysis in the rat

Biliary excretion and intestinal reabsorption in enterohepatic circulation play major dispositional roles for some drugs. To circumvent multiple blood sampling and interruption of enterohepatic circulation in conventional biliary cannulation, the present study utilized the minimally invasive sampling technique of microdialysis in pharmacokinetics and biliary excretion studies. Microdialysis probes were inserted into the jugular vein and bile duct in the anesthetized rat for simultaneous and continuous sampling following intravenous administration of esculetin, a bioactive coumarin derivative. Placements of the microdialysis probes were designed to minimize obstruction to normal flows of the body fluids. Separation and quantitation of esculetin in the dialysates were achieved using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to UV detection. The results indicated higher drug concentrations in the bile than in the blood, suggesting active biliary excretion. The study also provided an example of successful application of in vivo microdialysis as an interesting and feasible alternative for pharmacokinetics and biliary drug excretion studies.     

Microdialysis of dopamine interpreted with quantitative model incorporating probe implantation trauma

Although microdialysis is widely used to sample endogenous and exogenous substances in vivo, interpretation of the results obtained by this technique remains controversial. The goal of the present study was to examine recent criticism of microdialysis in the specific case of dopamine (DA) measurements in the brain extracellular microenvironment. The apparent steady-state basal extracellular concentration and extraction fraction of DA were determined in anesthetized rat striatum by the concentration difference (no-net-flux) microdialysis technique. A rate constant for extracellular clearance of DA calculated from the extraction fraction was smaller than the previously determined estimate by fast-scan cyclic voltammetry for cellular uptake of DA. Because the relatively small size of the voltammetric microsensor produces little tissue damage, the discrepancy between the uptake rate constants may be a consequence of trauma from microdialysis probe implantation. The trauma layer has previously been identified by histology and proposed to distort measurements of extracellular DA levels by the no-net-flux method. To address this issue, an existing quantitative mathematical model for microdialysis was modified to incorporate a traumatized tissue layer interposed between the probe and surrounding normal tissue. The tissue layers are hypothesized to differ in their rates of neurotransmitter release and uptake. A post-implantation traumatized layer with reduced uptake and no release can reconcile the discrepancy between DA uptake measured by microdialysis and voltammetry. The model predicts that this trauma layer would cause the DA extraction fraction obtained from microdialysis in vivo calibration techniques, such as no-net-flux, to differ from the DA relative recovery and lead to an underestimation of the DA extracellular concentration in the surrounding normal tissue.     

A Simple Method for Assessing Free Brain/Free Plasma Ratios Using an In Vitro Model of the Blood Brain Barrier

Historically, the focus has been to use in vitro BBB models to optimize rate of drug delivery to the CNS, whereas total in vivo brain/plasma ratios have been used for optimizing extent. However, these two parameters do not necessarily show good correlations with receptor occupancy data or other pharmacological readouts. In line with the free drug hypothesis, the use of unbound brain concentrations (Cu,br) has been shown to provide the best correlations with pharmacological data. However, typically the determination of this parameter requires microdialysis, a technique not ideally suited for screening in early drug development. Alternative, and less resource-demanding methodologies to determine Cu,br employ either equilibrium dialysis of brain homogenates or incubations of brain slices in buffer to determine fraction unbound brain (fu,br), which is subsequently multiplied by the total brain concentration to yield Cu,br. To determine Cu,br/Cu,pl ratios this way, still requires both in vitro and in vivo experiments that are quite time consuming. The main objective of this study was to explore the possibility to directly generate Cu,br/Cu,pl ratios in a single in vitro model of the BBB, using a co-culture of brain capillary endothelial and glial cells in an attempt to mimick the in vivo situation, thereby greatly simplifying existing experimental procedures. Comparison to microdialysis brain concentration profiles demonstrates the possibility to estimate brain exposure over time in the BBB model. A stronger correlation was found between in vitro Cu,br/Cu,pl ratios and in vivo Cu,br/Cu,pl obtained using fu,br from brain slice than with fu,br from brain homogenate for a set of 30 drugs. Overall, Cu,br/Cu,pl ratios were successfully predicted in vitro for 88% of the 92 studied compounds. This result supports the possibility to use this methodology for identifying compounds with a desirable in vivo response in the CNS early on in the drug discovery process.