真菌鞘糖脂的生物学功能及应用研究进展

丝状真菌作为一类重要的微生物，被广泛应用于发酵食品、工业酶和次生代谢物等工业生产中。真菌鞘糖脂主要由鞘氨醇、脂肪酸链和特殊的极性基团组成，根据极性基团的不同，分为中性鞘糖脂和酸性鞘糖脂两大类。鞘糖脂不仅参与真菌生长、细胞分化、增殖、细胞凋亡、逆境胁迫等重要生理活动，中性鞘糖脂还可作为功能性医药用品、化妆品和保健食品的重要活性组分。本文论述了真菌鞘糖脂的主要种类、结构、生物合成途径和及其参与丝状真菌生长、分化和响应逆境胁迫的生物学功能；探讨了真菌中性鞘糖脂作为抗菌肽的靶点和酸性鞘糖脂在开发抗真菌药物中的应用；同时还综述了中性鞘糖脂作为化妆品的保湿成分或保健食品的功能成分，在改善皮肤屏障功能和预防特应性皮炎中的重要作用的相关研究进展，尤其是来源于曲霉的中性鞘糖脂，可显著增强皮肤屏障功能，并可作为益生元预防肠道损伤；另外还探讨了曲霉尤其是米曲霉作为开发中性鞘糖脂生物资源的优势。     

鞘糖脂研究进展

鞘糖脂位于细胞膜脂质双分子层,是哺乳动物细胞膜上的必需组成成分之一,参与细胞的多种生物学活动,其生物学功能非常复杂。在免疫应答、细胞发育、细胞识别及分化中都发挥重要的作用。组织器官中鞘糖脂的异常表达往往与各种疾病具有明显的相关性。因此鞘糖脂的结构表征、构效关系研究以及与之相关的鞘糖脂生物合成及分解代谢途径的研究已成为近年来的热点问题。最近研究也表明鞘糖脂在疾病的发生发展及治疗过程中都具有至关重要的作用。对鞘糖脂的结构与功能的关系、糖脂的合成代谢以及糖脂的分离分析方法作一综述。     

膜脂物理属性及化学成分对BKCa钾离子通道的调节作用

大电导钙激活电压门控型钾离子通道(BKCa通道)广泛分布于各种组织中,主要由胞内钙离子浓度增加和细胞膜去极化而激活.此外多种膜脂,如脂肪酸、胆固醇、鞘糖脂等可修饰该通道的功能.该通道参与细胞内信号转导、细胞的兴奋及代谢调节等多种生理过程,其功能异常牵涉到特发性癫痫、高血压等疾病的发生.因而对BKCa通道功能的调节作用的研究具有重要的生理学及病理学意义.文章将主要介绍膜脂对BKCa通道功能的调节作用.     

鞘脂类的研究进展

鞘脂类研究是目前脂类研究的重点之一,鞘脂类研究进展有以下几方面:首先,鞘脂类具有结构上的多样性,可能的种类数量巨大;其次,人们已经克隆了大多数在鞘脂代谢途径中具有调控作用的酶类,研究的热点正在转向其调节机制;再次鞘脂类合成发生在内质网和高尔基体,通过协助扩散进行转运,CERT帮助神经酰胺从内质网到高尔基体的转运;第四,鞘脂类在细胞信号转导中起重要作用,神经酰胺和SIP是当前集中的研究对象;第五,鞘脂在脂筏的形成中具有重要作用,其特异性分布可能与脂筏的功能相关.鞘脂类的研究正在系统化,"(鞘)脂类组学"的提出有助于研究的进一步深入.     

鞘糖脂的人工合成体系研究进展

鞘糖脂(glycosphingolipids,GSLs)是真核生物细胞膜的重要组成部分,广泛参与细胞信号传导、免疫、增殖及凋亡等各项生理活动。鞘糖脂类具有作为药物、治疗靶标及潜在诊断标记的潜力,并且与多种疾病的发病机制及相关药物开发密切相关。目前,鞘糖脂类药物的大量制备主要依赖从动物脑组织中提取,存在成本较高、来源有限且有受疯牛病等人畜共患病污染的潜在危险。因此,对鞘糖脂的人工生物合成研究成为学术界的热点。本文中,笔者主要阐述鞘糖脂的化学酶法合成和人工细胞工厂构建方面的研究进展。     

糖鞘脂的生物学功能及相关药物开发研究

糖鞘脂是一类在细胞膜上成簇排列的两性分子,参与了细胞的黏附、生长、增殖、凋亡等。细胞发生癌变时,表面的某些糖鞘脂表达异常,通过检测特异性糖鞘脂的表达可以对某些癌症做出诊断。神经性疾病和遗传性疾病的产生或许与糖鞘脂的变化有着不可忽视的关系,某些糖脂已被公认为是干细胞的典型生物标志物。开发相应的糖鞘脂药物或抗体类药物,对于实现疾病的早期诊断和治疗等都具有重要意义。文章从糖鞘脂的结构与功能、糖鞘脂与神经性和遗传性疾病、糖鞘脂与干细胞、糖鞘脂与肿瘤以及鞘脂类药物开发等方面对近年来的研究进展作详细的总结。     

非律平菌素干扰甲基硝基亚硝基胍对FL细胞鞘脂代谢的影响

甲基硝基亚硝基胍（MNNG）可通过脂筏诱导细胞表面受体聚簇并激活NF-κB信号通路.本研究拟探讨脂筏干扰剂非律平菌素（filipin）对MNNG作用的影响.利用脂类组学方法分别研究了MNNG、filipin 单独处理及先用filipin再用MNNG处理情况下对人羊膜FL细胞鞘脂代谢的影响,用MALDI-TOF质谱法分析细胞鞘脂组成的变化,酶联免疫吸附法检测NF-κB通路的活化,RT-PCR法检测鞘脂代谢通路中关键酶的表达.结果表明,MNNG和filipin都可影响FL细胞鞘脂类代谢,但MNNG作用更显著.Filipin预处理可部分抑制MNNG对细胞鞘脂类代谢的影响,且能够抑制MNNG对NF-κB的活化;但filipin、MNNG单独或联合处理都不影响鞘脂代谢关键酶丝氨酸棕榈酰转移酶、酸性鞘磷脂酶和鞘磷脂合成酶在mRNA水平的表达.以上结果说明,filipin预处理会导致甲基硝基亚硝基胍引起FL细胞鞘脂代谢以及NF-κB活性的改变.而可能的机制在于,filipin破坏脂筏结构从而引起一系列信号途径的改变,而非通过改变脂类代谢关键酶的表达.     

病毒介导的海洋球石藻(Coccolithophores)鞘脂类代谢调控

海洋球石藻(Coccolithophores)是一种全球广泛分布且具有重要生态功能的真核浮游植物,有些种类是大洋和近岸常见的赤潮种。自然海域中,病毒感染是导致球石藻死亡和赤潮消亡的一个关键因素。基于一株海洋球石藻Emiliania huxleyi及其特异性裂解病毒全基因组测序注释的结果,研究者们发现病毒可能通过基因横向转移从宿主基因组中获取了一系列与鞘脂类代谢相关的关键酶基因,进而在一定程度上掌控了宿主鞘脂类代谢,大量合成、积累病毒性鞘脂类物质,并最终诱导宿主细胞以凋亡的形式死亡。因此,病毒介导的宿主鞘脂类代谢在调节病毒与宿主间相互作用中具有重要意义。本文着重综述海洋球石藻病毒与宿主间的基因横向转移、病毒介导的宿主鞘脂类代谢特点及其生态学意义,以期深入了解海洋球石藻病毒与宿主间复杂的相互作用关系。     

生物膜的生物物理观——从微区到脂筏

大量的实验表明,在细胞质膜中,由于不同成分具有不同的生物化学特性,发生相分离而局部形成微区.不同的微区可行使不同的功能.近年来一种富含胆固醇、鞘脂类以及大量的受体和信号分子的液态有序相的微区,即脂筏(lipid rafts),由于被发现参与信号转导和一些物质的生理循环过程而备受关注.随着实验手段的提高,人们对生物膜在分子水平上认识的不断深化,脂筏结构和功能的物理、化学基础研究方面也取得了初步的进展.     

鞘氨醇激酶信号途径对骨重建的调节作用

鞘磷脂是哺乳动物细胞质膜的主要成分之一,在其代谢过程中,鞘氨醇激酶（sphingosine kinase, SPHK）是一个关键性的调节酶.鞘磷脂代谢产物鞘鞍醇经SPHK磷酸化作用产生的鞘氨醇-1-磷酸（S1P）是一种具有生物活性的脂类,参与调节骨骼、神经、免疫、血液系统等多种组织细胞的生物学过程.本文阐述了SPHK/S1P信号途径相关分子,并综述了SPHK/S1P通过调节骨组织细胞的形态结构、增殖、迁移、分化形成及凋亡等功能,进而调节骨重建平衡过程的生物学效应及其机制.     

Identification of a flavin-monooxygenase as the S-oxygenating enzyme in aliphatic glucosinolate biosynthesis in Arabidopsis

The cancer-preventive activity of cruciferous vegetables is commonly attributed to isothiocyanates resulting from the breakdown of the natural products glucosinolates (GSLs). Sulforaphane, the isothiocyanate derived from 4-methylsulfinylbutyl GSL, is thought to be the major agent conferring cancer-preventive properties, whereas the isothiocyanate of 4-methylthiobutyl GSL does not have the same activity. We report the identification of an Arabidopsis flavin-monooxygenase (FMO) enzyme, FMO(GS-OX1), which catalyzes the conversion of methylthioalkyl GSLs into methylsulfinylalkyl GSLs. This is evidenced by biochemical characterization of the recombinant protein, and analyses of the GSL content in FMO(GS-OX1) overexpression lines and an FMO(GS-OX1) knock-out mutant of Arabidopsis. The FMO(GS-OX1) overexpression lines show almost complete conversion of methylthioalkyl into methylsulfinylalkyl GSLs, with an approximately fivefold increase in 4-methylsulfinylbutyl GSL in seeds. Identification of FMO(GS-OX1) provides a molecular tool for breeding of Brassica vegetable crops with increased levels of this important GSL, which has implications for production of functional foods enriched with the cancer-preventive sulforaphane.     

Glycosphingolipid synthesis is essential for MDCK cell differentiation

Glycosphingolipids (GSLs), which are highly concentrated at the apical membrane of polarized epithelial cells, are key components of cell membranes and are involved in a large number of processes. Here, we investigated the ability of hypertonicity (high salt medium) to induce Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cell differentiation and found an increase in GSL synthesis under hypertonic conditions. Then, we investigated the role of GSLs in MDCK cell differentiation induced by hypertonicity by using two approaches. First, cultured cells were depleted of GSLs by exposure to D-threo-1-phenyl-2-decanoylamino-3-morpholino-1-propanol (D-PDMP). Second, cells were transfected with an siRNA specific to glucosylceramide synthase, the key enzyme in GSL synthesis. Exposure of cells to both treatments resulted in the impairment of the development of the apical membrane domain and the formation of the primary cilium. Enzymatic inhibitions of the de novo and the salvage pathway of GSL synthesis were used to determine the source of ceramide responsible of the GSL increase involved in the development of the apical membrane domain induced by hypertonicity. The results from this study show that extracellular hypertonicity induces the development of a differentiated apical membrane in MDCK cells by performing a sphingolipid metabolic program that includes the formation of a specific pool of GSLs. The results suggest as precursor a specific pool of ceramides formed by activation of a Fumonisin B1-resistant ceramide synthase as a component of the salvage pathway.     

Glucosinolate structures in evolution

By 2000, around 106 natural glucosinolates (GSLs) were probably documented. In the past decade, 26 additional natural GSL structures have been elucidated and documented. Hence, the total number of documented GSLs from nature by 2011 can be estimated to around 132. A considerable number of additional suggested structures are concluded not to be sufficiently documented. In many cases, NMR spectroscopy would have provided the missing structural information. Of the GSLs documented in the past decade, several are of previously unexpected structures and occur at considerable levels. Most originate from just four species: Barbarea vulgaris, Arabidopsis thaliana, Eruca sativa and Isatis tinctoria. Acyl derivatives of known GSLs comprised 15 of the 26 newly documented structures, while the remaining exhibited new substitution patterns or chain length, or contained a mercapto group or related thio-functionality.GSL identification methods are reviewed, and the importance of using authentic references and structure-sensitive detection methods such as MS and NMR is stressed, especially when species with relatively unknown chemistry are analyzed. An example of qualitative GSL analysis is presented with experimental details (group separation and HPLC of both intact and desulfated GSLs, detection and structure determination by UV, MS, NMR and susceptibility to myrosinase) with emphasis on the use of NMR for structure elucidation of even minor GSLs and GSL hydrolysis products. The example includes identification of a novel GSL, (R)-2-hydroxy-2-(3-hydroxyphenyl)ethylglucosinolate.Recent investigations of GSL evolution, based on investigations of species with well established phylogeny, are reviewed. From the relatively few such investigations, it is already clear that GSL profiles are regularly subject to evolution. This result is compatible with natural selection for specific GSL side chains. The probable existence of structure-specific GSL catabolism in intact plants suggests that biochemical evolution of GSLs has more complex implications than the mere liberation of a different hydrolysis product upon tissue disruption.     

Stemming the tide: glycosphingolipid synthesis inhibitors as therapy for storage diseases

Glycosphingolipids (GSLs) are plasma membrane components of every eukaryotic cell. They are composed of a hydrophobic ceramide moiety linked to a glycan chain of variable length and structure. Once thought to be relatively inert, GSLs have now been implicated in a variety of biological processes. Recent studies of animals rendered genetically deficient in various classes of GSLs have demonstrated that these molecules are important for embryonic differentiation and development as well as central nervous system function. A family of extremely severe diseases is caused by inherited defects in the lysosomal degradation pathway of GSLs. In many of these disorders GSLs accumulate in cells, particularly neurons, causing neurodegeneration and a shortened life span. No effective treatment exists for most of these diseases and little is understood about the mechanisms of pathogenesis. This review will discuss the development of a new approach to the treatment of GSL storage disorders that targets the major synthesis pathway of GSLs to stem their cellular accumulation.     

Adamantyl glycosphingolipids provide a new approach to the selective regulation of cellular glycosphingolipid metabolism

Mammalian glycosphingolipid (GSL) precursor monohexosylceramides are either glucosyl- or galactosylceramide (GlcCer or GalCer). Most GSLs derive from GlcCer. Substitution of the GSL fatty acid with adamantane generates amphipathic mimics of increased water solubility, retaining receptor function. We have synthesized adamantyl GlcCer (adaGlcCer) and adamantyl GalCer (adaGalCer). AdaGlcCer and adaGalCer partition into cells to alter GSL metabolism. At low dose, adaGlcCer increased cellular GSLs by inhibition of glucocerebrosidase (GCC). Recombinant GCC was inhibited at pH 7 but not pH 5. In contrast, adaGalCer stimulated GCC at pH 5 but not pH 7 and, like adaGlcCer, corrected N370S mutant GCC traffic from the endoplasmic reticulum to lysosomes. AdaGalCer reduced GlcCer levels in normal and lysosomal storage disease (LSD) cells. At 40 μM adaGlcCer, lactosylceramide (LacCer) synthase inhibition depleted LacCer (and more complex GSLs), such that only GlcCer remained. In Vero cell microsomes, 40 μM adaGlcCer was converted to adaLacCer, and LacCer synthesis was inhibited. AdaGlcCer is the first cell LacCer synthase inhibitor. At 40 μM adaGalCer, cell synthesis of only Gb(3) and Gb(4) was significantly reduced, and a novel product, adamantyl digalactosylceramide (adaGb(2)), was generated, indicating substrate competition for Gb(3) synthase. AdaGalCer also inhibited cell sulfatide synthesis. Microsomal Gb(3) synthesis was inhibited by adaGalCer. Metabolic labeling of Gb(3) in Fabry LSD cells was selectively reduced by adaGalCer, and adaGb(2) was produced. AdaGb(2) in cells was 10-fold more effectively shed into the medium than the more polar Gb(3), providing an easily eliminated "safety valve" alternative to Gb(3) accumulation. Adamantyl monohexosyl ceramides thus provide new tools to selectively manipulate normal cellular GSL metabolism and reduce GSL accumulation in cells from LSD patients.     

Pathophysiological roles and applications of glycosphingolipids in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer diseases

Glycosphingolipids (GSLs) are major amphiphilic glycolipids present on the surface of living cell membranes. They have important biological functions, including maintaining plasma membrane stability, regulating signal transduction, and mediating cell recognition and adhesion. Specific GSLs and related enzymes are abnormally expressed in many cancer diseases and affect the malignant characteristics of tumors. The regulatory roles of GSLs in signaling pathways suggest that they are involved in tumor pathogenesis. GSLs have therefore been widely studied as diagnostic markers of cancer diseases and important targets of immunotherapy. This review describes the tumor-related biological functions of GSLs and systematically introduces recent progress in using diverse GSLs and related enzymes to diagnose and treat tumor diseases. Development of drugs and biomarkers for personalized cancer therapy based on GSL structure is also discussed. These advances, combined with recent progress in the preparation of GSLs derivatives through synthetic biology technologies, suggest a strong future for the use of customized GSL libraries in treating human diseases.     

Variable subcellular localization of glycosphingolipids

Although most glycosphingolipids (GSLs) are thought to be locatedin the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane, recent evidenceindicates that GSLs are also associated with intracellular organelles.We now report that the subcellular localization of GSLs variesdepending on the GSL structure and cell type. GSL localizationwas determined by indirect immunofluorescence microscopy offixed permeabilized cells. A single GSL exhibited variable subcellularlocalization in different cells. For example, antibody to GalCeris localized primarily to the plasma membrane of HaCaT II-3keratinocytes, but to intracellular organelies in other epithelialcells. GalCer is localized to small vesicles and tubulovesicularstructures in MDCK cells, and to the surface of phase-denselipid droplets in HepG2 hepatoma cells. Furthermore, withina single cell type, individual GSLs were found to exhibit differentpatterns of subcellular localization. In HepG2 cells, LacCerwas associated with small vesicles, which differed from thephase-dense vesicles stained by anti-GalCer, and Gb4Cer wasassociated with the intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton.Both anti-GalCer and monoclonal antibody A2B5, which binds polysialogangliosides,localized to mitochondria. The distinct subcellular localizationpatterns of GSLs raise interesting questions about their functionsin different organelles. Together with published data on theenrichment of GSLs in specific organelles and in apical plasmamembrane, these findings indicate the existence of specificsorting mechanisms that regulate the intracellular transportand localization of GSLs. cytoskeleton glycosphingolipid intracellular organelles mitochondria subcellular localization     

Subclade of flavin-monooxygenases involved in aliphatic glucosinolate biosynthesis

Glucosinolates (GSLs) are amino acid-derived secondary metabolites with diverse biological activities dependent on chemical modifications of the side chain. We previously identified the flavin-monooxygenase FMO(GS-OX1) as an enzyme in the biosynthesis of aliphatic GSLs in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) that catalyzes the S-oxygenation of methylthioalkyl to methylsulfinylalkyl GSLs. Here, we report the fine mapping of a quantitative trait locus for the S-oxygenating activity in Arabidopsis. In this region, there are three FMOs that, together with FMO(GS-OX1) and a fifth FMO, form what appears to be a crucifer-specific subclade. We report the identification of these four uncharacterized FMOs, designated FMO(GS-OX2) to FMO(GS-OX5). Biochemical characterization of the recombinant protein combined with the analysis of GSL content in knockout mutants and overexpression lines show that FMO(GS-OX2), FMO(GS-OX3), and FMO(GS-OX4) have broad substrate specificity and catalyze the conversion from methylthioalkyl GSL to the corresponding methylsulfinylalkyl GSL independent of chain length. In contrast, FMO(GS-OX5) shows substrate specificity toward the long-chain 8-methylthiooctyl GSL. Identification of the FMO(GS-OX) subclade will generate better understanding of the evolution of biosynthetic activities and specificities in secondary metabolism and provides an important tool for breeding plants with improved cancer prevention characteristics as provided by the methylsulfinylalkyl GSL.     

Thematic Review Series: Recent Advances in the Treatment of Lysosomal Storage Diseases: The development and use of small molecule inhibitors of glycosphingolipid metabolism for lysosomal storage diseases

Glycosphingolipid (GSL) storage diseases have been the focus of efforts to develop small molecule therapeutics from design, experimental proof of concept studies, and clinical trials. Two primary alternative strategies that have been pursued include pharmacological chaperones and GSL synthase inhibitors. There are theoretical advantages and disadvantages to each of these approaches. Pharmacological chaperones are specific for an individual glycoside hydrolase and for the specific mutation present, but no candidate chaperone has been demonstrated to be effective for all mutations leading to a given disorder. Synthase inhibitors target single enzymes such as glucosylceramide synthase and inhibit the formation of multiple GSLs. A glycolipid synthase inhibitor could potentially be used to treat multiple diseases, but at the risk of lowering nontargeted cellular GSLs that are important for normal health. The basis for these strategies and specific examples of compounds that have led to clinical trials is the focus of this review.     

Substrate deprivation: a new therapeutic approach for the glycosphingolipid lysosomal storage diseases

The glycosphingolipid (GSL) lysosomal storage diseases are a family of human metabolic diseases that, in their severest forms, cause death in early infancy, as a result of progressive neurodegeneration. They are caused by mutations in the genes encoding the glycohydrolases or the activator proteins that catabolise GSLs within lysosomes. In these diseases the GSL substrate of the defective enzyme accumulates in the lysosome, where it is stored and leads to cellular dysfunction and disease. The therapeutic options for treating these diseases are relatively limited; in fact, there are currently no available therapies for most of these disorders. The problem is further compounded by difficulties in delivering therapeutic agents to the central nervous system, which is where the pathology is frequently manifested. To date, research effort has mainly focused on strategies for augmenting enzyme concentrations to compensate for the underlying defect. These strategies include bone-marrow transplantation, enzyme-replacement therapy and gene therapy. Our group has been exploring the alternative strategy of substrate deprivation. This approach aims to balance the rate of GSL synthesis with the impaired rate of GSL breakdown. Studies using an asymptomatic mouse model of Tay-Sachs disease have shown that substrate deprivation prevents GSL storage. In a severe neurodegenerative mouse model of Sandhoff disease, substrate deprivation delayed the onset of symptoms and disease progression, and significantly increased life expectancy. The implications of this research for human therapy have been discussed.