Fertilization effects on fineroot biomass, rhizosphere microbes and respiratory fluxes in hardwood forest soils

Fertilizer-induced reductions in CO(2) flux from soil ((F)CO(2)) in forests have previously been attributed to decreased carbon allocation to roots, and decreased decomposition as a result of nitrogen suppression of fungal activity. Here, we present evidence that decreased microbial respiration in the rhizosphere may also contribute to (F)CO(2) reductions in fertilized forest soils. Fertilization reduced (F)CO(2) by 16-19% in 65-yr-old plantations of northern red oak (Quercus rubra) and sugar maple (Acer saccharum), and in a natural 85-yr-old yellow birch (Betula allegheniensis) stand. In oak plots, fertilization had no effects on fine root biomass but reduced mycorrhizal colonization by 18% and microbial respiration by 43%. In maple plots, fertilization reduced root biomass, mycorrhizal colonization and microbial respiration by 22, 16 and 46%, respectively. In birch plots, fertilization reduced microbial respiration by 36%, but had variable effects on root biomass and mycorrhizal colonization. In plots of all three species, fertilization effects on microbial respiration were greater in rhizosphere than in bulk soil, possibly as a result of decreased rhizosphere carbon flux from these species in fertile soils. Because rhizosphere processes may influence nutrient availability and carbon storage in forest ecosystems, future research is needed to better quantify rhizo-microbial contributions to (F)CO(2).     

Tropospheric O(3) compromises net primary production in young stands of trembling aspen, paper birch and sugar maple in response to elevated atmospheric CO(2)

Concentrations of atmospheric CO(2) and tropospheric ozone (O(3)) are rising concurrently in the atmosphere, with potentially antagonistic effects on forest net primary production (NPP) and implications for terrestrial carbon sequestration. Using free-air CO(2) enrichment (FACE) technology, we exposed north-temperate forest communities to concentrations of CO(2) and O(3) predicted for the year 2050 for the first 7 yr of stand development. Site-specific allometric equations were applied to annual nondestructive growth measurements to estimate above- and below-ground biomass and NPP for each year of the experiment. Relative to the control, elevated CO(2) increased total biomass 25, 45 and 60% in the aspen, aspen-birch and aspen-maple communities, respectively. Tropospheric O(3) caused 23, 13 and 14% reductions in total biomass relative to the control in the respective communities. Combined fumigation resulted in total biomass response of -7.8, +8.4 and +24.3% relative to the control in the aspen, aspen-birch and aspen-sugar maple communities, respectively. These results indicate that exposure to even moderate levels of O(3) significantly reduce the capacity of NPP to respond to elevated CO(2) in some forests.     

Complex effects of mammalian grazing on extramatrical mycelial biomass in the Scandes forest‐tundra ecotone

Mycorrhizal associations are widespread in high‐latitude ecosystems and are potentially of great importance for global carbon dynamics. Although large herbivores play a key part in shaping subarctic plant communities, their impact on mycorrhizal dynamics is largely unknown. We measured extramatrical mycelial (EMM) biomass during one growing season in 16‐year‐old herbivore exclosures and unenclosed control plots (ambient), at three mountain birch forests and two shrub heath sites, in the Scandes forest‐tundra ecotone. We also used high‐throughput amplicon sequencing for taxonomic identification to investigate differences in fungal species composition. At the birch forest sites, EMM biomass was significantly higher in exclosures (1.36 ± 0.43 g C/m²) than in ambient conditions (0.66 ± 0.17 g C/m²) and was positively influenced by soil thawing degree‐days. At the shrub heath sites, there was no significant effect on EMM biomass (exclosures: 0.72 ± 0.09 g C/m²; ambient plots: 1.43 ± 0.94). However, EMM biomass was negatively related to Betula nana abundance, which was greater in exclosures, suggesting that grazing affected EMM biomass positively. We found no significant treatment effects on fungal diversity but the most abundant ectomycorrhizal lineage/cortinarius, showed a near‐significant positive effect of herbivore exclusion (p = .08), indicating that herbivory also affects fungal community composition. These results suggest that herbivory can influence fungal biomass in highly context‐dependent ways in subarctic ecosystems. Considering the importance of root‐associated fungi for ecosystem carbon balance, these findings could have far‐reaching implications.     

水稻生长及其体内C、N、P组成对开放式空气CO2浓度增高和N、P施肥的响应

采用FACE（Free Air Carbon-dioxide Enrichment)技术,研究了不同N、P施肥水平下,水稻分蘖期、拔节期、抽穗期和成熟期根、茎、穗生长,C/N比、N、P含量及N、P吸收对大气CO2浓度升高的响应,结果表明,高CO2促进水稻茎、穗和根的生长,增加分蘖期叶干重,对拔节期、抽穗期的成熟期叶干重没有显著增加,降低茎、叶N含量;增加抽穗期穗N含量;降低成熟期穗N含量;对分蘖期根N含量影响不显著,而降低拔节期,抽穗期和成熟期根N含量,增加拔节期、抽穗期和成熟期叶P含量,对茎、穗、根P含量影响不显著,水稻各组织C含量变化不显著,C/N比增加,显著增加水稻地上部分P吸收;增加N吸收,但没有统计显著性,N、P施用对水稻各组织生物量没有显著影响,高N（HN）比低N（LN）增加组织中N含量,而不同P肥水平间未表现出明显差异,高N条件下高CO2增加水稻成熟期地下部分/地上部分比,文中还讨论了高CO2对N、P含量及地下部分/地上部分比的影响机制。     

连续三年夜间增温和施氮对云杉外生菌根及菌根真菌多样性的影响

以西南亚高山针叶林建群种粗枝云杉(Picea asperata)为研究对象,采用红外加热模拟增温结合外施氮肥(NH₄NO₃ 25 g N m^-2 a^-1)的方法,研究连续3a夜间增温和施肥对云杉幼苗外生菌根侵染率、土壤外生菌根真菌生物量及其群落多样性的影响。结果表明:夜间增温对云杉外生菌根侵染率的影响具有季节性及根级差异。夜间增温对春季(2011年5月)云杉1级根,夏季(2011年7月)和秋季(2010年10月)云杉2级根侵染率影响显著。除2011年7月1级根外,施氮对云杉1、2级根侵染率无显著影响。夜间增温对土壤中外生菌根真菌的生物量和群落多样性无显著影响,施氮及增温与施氮联合处理使土壤中外生菌根真菌生物量显著降低,但却提高了外生菌根真菌群落的多样性。这说明云杉幼苗外生菌根侵染率对温度较敏感,土壤外生菌根真菌生物量及其群落多样性对施氮较敏感。这为进一步研究该区域亚高山针叶林地下过程对全球气候变化的响应机制提供了科学依据。     

Ectomycorrhizal fungi in culture respond differently to increased carbon availability

Carbon (C) availability to ectomycorrhizal fungi is likely to increase at elevated atmospheric CO(2). To determine whether there are any broad patterns in species' responses that relate to their ecology, we compared growth, respiration, N uptake and C exudation of 17 fungal isolates in liquid culture. As a surrogate for increased C availability we used three different C:N ratios (10:1, 20:1 and 40:1), moving from conditions of C limitation to conditions of N limitation. Responses were species-specific, and suilloid fungi were the most responsive in terms of growth and respiration. In contrast, a group of eight isolates showed no growth increase above C:N 20:1. This inability to respond was not due to N limitation, although there were marked differences in N uptake between isolates. At higher C availability isolates generally became more efficient in converting C into biomass. Six isolates showed net release of exudates into the culture medium (up to 40% of the C in biomass and respiration). We conclude that the findings were in agreement with field observations, and suggest that pure culture observations can yield ecologically relevant information on how ectomycorrhizal fungi may respond under conditions of elevated CO(2).     

Forest Age and Plant Species Composition Determine the Soil Fungal Community Composition in a Chinese Subtropical Forest

Fungal diversity and community composition are mainly related to soil and vegetation factors. However, the relative contribution of the different drivers remains largely unexplored, especially in subtropical forest ecosystems. We studied the fungal diversity and community composition of soils sampled from 12 comparative study plots representing three forest age classes (Young: 10–40 yrs; Medium: 40–80 yrs; Old: ≥80 yrs) in Gutianshan National Nature Reserve in South-eastern China. Soil fungal communities were assessed employing ITS rDNA pyrotag sequencing. Members of Basidiomycota and Ascomycota dominated the fungal community, with 22 putative ectomycorrhizal fungal families, where Russulaceae and Thelephoraceae were the most abundant taxa. Analysis of similarity showed that the fungal community composition significantly differed among the three forest age classes. Forest age class, elevation of the study plots, and soil organic carbon (SOC) were the most important factors shaping the fungal community composition. We found a significant correlation between plant and fungal communities at different taxonomic and functional group levels, including a strong relationship between ectomycorrhizal fungal and non-ectomycorrhizal plant communities. Our results suggest that in subtropical forests, plant species community composition is the main driver of the soil fungal diversity and community composition.     

Similar taxonomic richness but different communities of ectomycorrhizas in native forests and non-native plantation forests

This investigation sought to examine if there was a difference between the ectomycorrhizal (ECM) communities in plots of native oak and introduced Scots pine and Sitka spruce forest. The ECM communities in four plots of each forest type were described, from five soil cores collected in each plot, by morphotyping, internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-restriction fragment length polymorphism matching of mycorrhizas and sporocarps and ITS sequencing. Fifty-one distinct taxa were distinguished; 25 were identified to species level, 11 to genus and 15 remained unidentified. Seventy-one ECM species were recorded as sporocarps from the forest plots; most (43 species) were found in the Sitka spruce plots. The below-ground ECM communities of the different forest types did not differ significantly with respect to species richness of taxa on roots, but differed in species composition. Multivariate analysis produced a clear separation of the communities of the different forest types using below-ground data, but the above-ground sporocarp data did not separate the forest types. Moreover, results of a Mantel test found no relationship between the above- and below-ground similarity matrices. The oak plots had the most distinctive ECM community, with Laccaria amethystina and Elaphomyces granulatus being frequent. The Sitka spruce plots showed the lowest intra-forest type similarity and were often dominated by "nursery type" ectomycorrhizas. There was only 10% similarity between the above- and below-ground ECM species in these plots, different colonisation methods of ectomycorrhizal taxa and insufficient below-ground sampling being possible reasons for this disparity. Our results indicate that plantations of non-native Sitka spruce can support similar levels of ECM diversity as native forests.     

Soil nutrient heterogeneity interacts with elevated CO2 and nutrient availability to determine species and assemblage responses in a model grassland community

Interactive effects of atmospheric CO(2) concentration ([CO(2)]), soil nutrient availability and soil nutrient spatial distribution on the structure and function of plant assemblages remain largely unexplored. Here we conducted a microcosm experiment to evaluate these interactions using a grassland assemblage formed by Lolium perenne, Plantago lanceolata, Trifolium repens, Anthoxanthum odoratum and Holcus lanatus. Assemblages exhibited precise root foraging patterns, had higher total and below-ground biomass, and captured more nitrogen when nutrients were supplied heterogeneously. Root foraging responses were modified by nutrient availability, and the patterns of N capture by interactions between nutrient distribution, availability and [CO(2)]. Greater above-ground biomass was observed under elevated CO(2) only under homogeneous conditions of nutrient supply and at the highest availability level. CO(2) interacted with nutrient distribution and availability to determine foliar percentage N and below : above-ground biomass ratios, respectively. Interactions between nutrient distribution and CO(2) determined the relative contribution to above-ground biomass of four of the species. The responses of dominant and subordinate species to [CO(2)] were dependent on the availability and distribution of nutrients. Our results suggest that soil nutrient distribution has the potential to influence the response of plant species and assemblages to changes in [CO(2)] and nutrient availability.     

Elevated CO2 increases nitrogen rhizodeposition and microbial immobilization of root-derived nitrogen

With this study, we aimed to determine how elevated CO(2) affects rhizodeposition and the cycling of rhizodeposited nitrogen (N) in the soil under C(3) and C(4) plants. In addition, we examined how cultivated genotypes of wheat (Triticum turgidum) and maize (Zea mays) responded to elevated CO(2) in comparison with their wild relatives. By constructing an N-transfer experiment we could directly assess cycling of the rhizodeposited N and trace the fate of rhizodeposited N in the soil and in receiver plants. Biomass production, rhizodeposition and cycling of root-borne N in maize genotypes were not affected by elevated CO(2). Elevated CO(2) stimulated above- and below-ground biomass production of the wheat genotypes on average by 38%, and increased rhizodeposition and immobilization of root-derived N on average by 30%. Concurrently, elevated CO(2) reduced mineral (15)N and re-uptake of the root-derived N by 50% in wheat. This study shows that elevated CO(2) may enhance N limitation by increasing N rhizodeposition and subsequent immobilization of the root-derived N.     

Photosynthetic stimulation under long-term CO2 enrichment and fertilization is sustained across a closed Populus canopy profile (EUROFACE)

The long-term response of leaf photosynthesis to rising CO2 concentrations [CO2] depends on biochemical and morphological feedbacks. Additionally, responses to elevated [CO2] might depend on the nutrient availability and the light environment, affecting the net carbon uptake of a forest stand. After 6 yr of exposure to free-air CO2 enrichment (EUROFACE) during two rotation cycles (with fertilization during the second cycle), profiles of light, leaf characteristics and photosynthetic parameters were measured in the closed canopy of a poplar (Populus) short-rotation coppice. Net photosynthetic rate (A(growth)) was 49% higher in poplars grown in elevated [CO2], independently of the canopy position. Jmax significantly increased (15%), whereas leaf carboxylation capacity (Vcmax), leaf nitrogen (N(a)) and chlorophyll (Chl(a)) were unaffected in elevated [CO2]. Leaf mass per unit area (LMA) increased in the upper canopy. Fertilization created more leaves in the top of the crown. These results suggest that the photosynthetic stimulation by elevated [CO2] in a closed-canopy poplar coppice might be sustained in the long term. The absence of any down-regulation, given a sufficient sink capacity and nutrient availability, provides more carbon for growth and storage in this bioenergy plantation.     

Effect of Elevated CO2 and Drought on Soil Microbial Communities Associated with Andropogon gerardii

Our understanding of the effects of elevated atmospheric CO2, singly and In combination with other environmental changes,on plant-soil interactions is incomplete. Elevated CO2 effects on C4 plants, though smaller than on C3 species, are mediated mostly via decreased stomatal conductance and thus water loss. Therefore, we characterized the interactive effect of elevated CO2 and drought on soil microbial communities associated with a dominant C4 prairie grass, Andropogon gerardii Vitman. Elevated CO2 and drought both affected resources available to the soil microbial community. For example, elevated CO2 increased the soil C:N ratio and water content during drought, whereas drought alone decreased both. Drought significantly decreased soil microbial biomass. In contrast, elevated COz increased biomass while ameliorating biomass decreases that were induced under drought. Total and active direct bacterial counts and carbon substrate use (overall use and number of used sources) increased significantly under elevated CO2. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis revealed that drought and elevated CO2, singly and combined, did not affect the soil bacteria community structure.We conclude that elevated CO2 alone increased bacterial abundance and microbial activity and carbon use, probably in response to increased root exudation. Elevated CO2 also limited drought-related impacts on microbial activity and biomass,which likely resulted from decreased plant water use under elevated CO2. These are among the first results showing that elevated CO2 and drought work in opposition to modulate plant-associated soil-bacteria responses,which should then Influence soil resources and plant and ecosystem function.     

Seven years of carbon dioxide enrichment, nitrogen fertilization and plant diversity influence arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a grassland ecosystem

? We tested the prediction that the abundance and diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are influenced by resource availability and plant community composition by examining the joint effects of carbon dioxide (CO(2) ) enrichment, nitrogen (N) fertilization and plant diversity on AM fungi. ? We quantified AM fungal spores and extramatrical hyphae in 176 plots after 7 yr of treatment with all combinations of ambient or elevated CO(2) (368 or 560 ppm), with or without N fertilization (0 or 4 g Nm(-2) ), and one (monoculture) or 16 host plant species (polyculture) in the BioCON field experiment at Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve, Minnesota, USA. ? Extramatrical hyphal lengths were increased by CO(2) enrichment, whereas AM spore abundance decreased with N fertilization. Spore abundance, morphotype richness and extramatrical hyphal lengths were all greater in monoculture plots. A structural equation model showed AM fungal biovolume was most influenced by CO(2) enrichment, plant community composition and plant richness, whereas spore richness was most influenced by fungal biovolume, plant community composition and plant richness. ? Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi responded to differences in host community and resource availability, suggesting that mycorrhizal functions, such as carbon sequestration and soil stability, will be affected by global change.     

Site fertility and soil water-table level affect fungal biomass production and community composition in boreal peatland forests

A substantial amount of below-ground carbon (C) is suggested to be associated with fungi, which may significantly affect the soil C balance in forested ecosystems. Ergosterol from in-growth mesh bags and litterbags was used to estimate fungal biomass production and community composition in drained peatland forests with differing fertility. Extramatrical mycelia (EMM) biomass production was generally higher in the nutrient-poor site, increased with deeper water table level and decreased along the length of the recovery time. EMM biomass production was of the same magnitude as in mineral-soil forests. Saprotrophic fungal biomass production was higher in the nutrient-rich site. Both ectomycorrhizal (ECM) and saprotrophic fungal community composition changed according to site fertility and water table level. ECM fungal community composition with different exploration types may explain the differences in fungal biomass production between peatland forests. Melanin-rich Hyaloscypha may indicate decreased turnover of biomass in nutrient-rich young peatland forest. Genera Lactarius and Laccaria may be important in nutrient rich and Piloderma in the nutrient-poor conditions, respectively. Furthermore, Paxillus involutus and Cortinarius sp. may be important generalists in all sites and responsible for EMM biomass production during the first summer months. Saprotrophs showed a functionally more diverse fungal community in the nutrient-rich site.     

不同CO2浓度和N肥水平对粳稻茎鞘非结构性碳水化合物含量与积累的影响

为了解CO2浓度升高和N肥水平对水稻茎鞘内非结构性碳水化合物(NSC)含量和积累量的影响,利用开顶式气室(OTC),以常规粳稻"南粳9108"为试验材料,设置3个CO2浓度水平:对照T0(背景大气)、T0+120μmol·mol-1(T1)和T0+200μmol·mol-1(T2)。在OTC内采用盆栽方式,设置3个氮(N)肥水平:10 g N·m^-2(N1)、20 g N·m^-2(N2)和30g N·m^-2(N3)。分别于水稻抽穗期、灌浆期(抽穗后20 d)和成熟期对地上部分各器官生物量、茎鞘NSC含量以及顶部四张叶片的N含量进行分析。结果表明:CO2浓度升高对抽穗期叶N含量总体无显著影响,但显著降低灌浆期N2和N3水平的叶N含量;CO2浓度升高对抽穗期茎鞘NSC含量和积累量无显著影响,抽穗期置换到高CO2浓度环境使灌浆期茎鞘NSC积累显著增加,置换到低CO2浓度环境使NSC积累显著减少。同一CO2浓度条件下,NSC含量和积累量均为N1>N2>N3,且N1处理均显著高于N3处理,CO2浓度升高和N水平的交互作用对灌浆期茎鞘NSC含量影响显著。水稻产量在不同CO2浓度水平间无显著差异,但随施氮水平的提高而增加。抽穗期与灌浆期水稻茎鞘NSC含量和积累量与茎鞘干重呈极显著正相关,与叶N含量呈极显著负相关;叶N衰减越慢,灌浆期水稻茎鞘NSC残留比(RNSC)越低;结实率和产量与RNSC呈显著负相关,RNSC越大,茎鞘NSC转移的越少,结实率和产量越低。     

The production and turnover of extramatrical mycelium of ectomycorrhizal fungi in forest soils: role in carbon cycling

There is growing evidence of the importance of extramatrical mycelium (EMM) of mycorrhizal fungi in carbon (C) cycling in ecosystems. However, our understanding has until recently been mainly based on laboratory experiments, and knowledge of such basic parameters as variations in mycelial production, standing biomass and turnover as well as the regulatory mechanisms behind such variations in forest soils is limited. Presently, the production of EMM by ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi has been estimated at ~140 different forest sites to be up to several hundreds of kg per ha per year, but the published data are biased towards Picea abies in Scandinavia. Little is known about the standing biomass and turnover of EMM in other systems, and its influence on the C stored or lost from soils. Here, focussing on ectomycorrhizas, we discuss the factors that regulate the production and turnover of EMM and its role in soil C dynamics, identifying important gaps in this knowledge. C availability seems to be the key factor determining EMM production and possibly its standing biomass in forests but direct effects of mineral nutrient availability on the EMM can be important. There is great uncertainty about the rate of turnover of EMM. There is increasing evidence that residues of EM fungi play a major role in the formation of stable N and C in SOM, which highlights the need to include mycorrhizal effects in models of global soil C stores.     

Optimal nitrogen allocation controls tree responses to elevated CO2

Despite the abundance of experimental data, understanding of forest responses to elevated CO2 is limited. Here I show that a key to previously unexplained production and leaf area responses lies in the interplay between whole-plant nitrogen (N) allocation and leaf photosynthesis. A simple tree growth model, controlled by net growth maximization through optimization of leaf area index (LAI) and plant N, is used to analyse CO2 responses in both young, expanding and closed, steady-state canopies. The responses are sensitive to only two independent parameters, the photosynthetic capacity per leaf N (a) and the fine-root N:leaf N ratio. The model explains observed CO2 responses of photosynthesis, production and LAI in four forest free air CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiments. Insensitivity of LAI except at low LAI, increase in light-use efficiency, and photosynthetic down-regulation (as a result of reduced leaf N per area) at elevated CO2 are all explained through the combined effects on a and leaf quantum efficiency. The model bridges the gap between the understanding of leaf-level and plant-level responses and provides a transparent framework for interpreting and linking structural (LAI) and functional (net primary production (NPP):gross primary production (GPP) ratio, light-use efficiency, photosynthetic down-regulation) responses to elevated CO2.     

CO2浓度升高对沉水克隆植物生长速率及营养元素积累的影响

 研究在不同CO2浓度下水生克隆植物刺苦草（Vallisneria spinulosa）整个生活周期中生长的动态变化及对营养元素积累情况。在不损伤植物体的前提下,采用刺苦草形态学指标组合史估计了植株生物量的动态变化。结果表明：刺苦草鳞茎的萌发不受CO2浓度变化的影响。在高浓度CO2即(1000±50) μmol·mol-1下,刺苦草源株地上部分生长速率在整个生长前期和中期都远远高于低浓度CO2即(400±20) μmol·mol-1,而在后期则出现相反的现象,其中一个原因是因为高浓度CO2下后期光合物质向地下大量转移形成鳞茎引起地上部分生长减慢。但高浓度CO2下克隆株中的初级和次级分株生长速率均高于低浓度CO2。在两种CO2浓度下相同克隆植株构件中的总碳含量没有明显差异;除鳞茎外,根、叶、匍匐茎中的总磷含量随CO2浓度升高显著增加;由于各构件生物量增加有明显差异,导致叶和鳞茎因为生物稀释作用而使其含氮量降低了12%～14%,但根和茎中含量基本保持不变。在高浓度CO2中植株总生物量显著升高,所以总碳、总氮和总磷吸收量均显著大于在低浓度CO2中的吸收量。研究结果揭示,大气CO2浓度升高对沉水克隆植物生长的促进,有利于提高水生克隆植物在群落中的竞争能力;水生植物克隆生长将增加水生生态系统中碳的沉积;水环境中N、P含量将直接影响到水生克隆植物生长。     

Comparative metagenomic,phylogenetic and physiological analyses of soil microbial communities across nitrogen gradients

Terrestrial ecosystems are receiving elevated inputs of nitrogen (N) from anthropogenic sources and understanding how these increases in N availability affect soil microbial communities is critical for predicting the associated effects on belowground ecosystems. We used a suite of approaches to analyze the structure and functional characteristics of soil microbial communities from replicated plots in two long-term N fertilization experiments located in contrasting systems. Pyrosequencing-based analyses of 16S rRNA genes revealed no significant effects of N fertilization on bacterial diversity, but significant effects on community composition at both sites; copiotrophic taxa (including members of the Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes phyla) typically increased in relative abundance in the high N plots, with oligotrophic taxa (mainly Acidobacteria) exhibiting the opposite pattern. Consistent with the phylogenetic shifts under N fertilization, shotgun metagenomic sequencing revealed increases in the relative abundances of genes associated with DNA/RNA replication, electron transport and protein metabolism, increases that could be resolved even with the shallow shotgun metagenomic sequencing conducted here (average of 75 000 reads per sample). We also observed shifts in the catabolic capabilities of the communities across the N gradients that were significantly correlated with the phylogenetic and metagenomic responses, indicating possible linkages between the structure and functioning of soil microbial communities. Overall, our results suggest that N fertilization may, directly or indirectly, induce a shift in the predominant microbial life-history strategies, favoring a more active, copiotrophic microbial community, a pattern that parallels the often observed replacement of K-selected with r-selected plant species with elevated N.     

The likely impact of elevated [CO2], nitrogen deposition, increased temperature and management on carbon sequestration in temperate and boreal forest ecosystems: a literature review

Temperate and boreal forest ecosystems contain a large part of the carbon stored on land, in the form of both biomass and soil organic matter. Increasing atmospheric [CO2], increasing temperature, elevated nitrogen deposition and intensified management will change this C store. Well documented single-factor responses of net primary production are: higher photosynthetic rate (the main [CO2] response); increasing length of growing season (the main temperature response); and higher leaf-area index (the main N deposition and partly [CO2] response). Soil organic matter will increase with increasing litter input, although priming may decrease the soil C stock initially, but litter quality effects should be minimal (response to [CO2], N deposition, and temperature); will decrease because of increasing temperature; and will increase because of retardation of decomposition with N deposition, although the rate of decomposition of high-quality litter can be increased and that of low-quality litter decreased. Single-factor responses can be misleading because of interactions between factors, in particular those between N and other factors, and indirect effects such as increased N availability from temperature-induced decomposition. In the long term the strength of feedbacks, for example the increasing demand for N from increased growth, will dominate over short-term responses to single factors. However, management has considerable potential for controlling the C store.