溶质转运蛋白超家族的功能及结构研究进展

溶质转运蛋白(solute carriers,SLC)超家族是人类细胞膜(含胞内膜)上最重要的膜转运蛋白家族之一,它参与了细胞间的物质运输、能量传递、营养代谢、信号传导等重要生理活动。SLC转运蛋白超家族包含52个亚家族,共有400多名成员。研究表明,人类基因突变所致SLC蛋白表达异常或功能缺陷与糖尿病、高血压、抑郁症等多种重大疾病密切相关,使得该家族蛋白的功能研究近年来备受关注。SLC转运家族蛋白三维结构的解析有助于阐述其底物选择性结合与转运的精确分子机制,为研究该家族功能相关疾病的分子机理以及针对理性药物研发奠定了精细的三维结构基础。本文对近年来溶质转运蛋白超家族的结构及功能研究进展进行了总结,试图对该家族的共性规律进行阐述。     

乙酰辅酶A与内质网乙酰化

乙酰辅酶A是细胞内物质和能量代谢的重要中间物，同时也是蛋白质乙酰化的乙酰基供体。蛋白质乙酰化包括Nα-乙酰化和Nε-乙酰化，由不同的酶进行催化。蛋白质乙酰化发生在多个亚细胞部位，如细胞基质、细胞核、线粒体和内质网腔等。不同细胞器和区室内乙酰辅酶A的波动可调控内质网蛋白质的乙酰化水平。本文从柠檬酸转运蛋白SLC25A1和SLC13A5、乙酰辅酶A转运蛋白AT-1以及乙酰转移酶ATase1和ATase2的功能出发，以相关人类疾病、内质网乙酰化失调小鼠模型和柠檬酸/乙酰辅酶A通量失调小鼠模型为背景进行分析，阐述了乙酰辅酶A和内质网乙酰化以及内质网乙酰化功能失调与退行性疾病之间的关系，旨在为靶向治疗相关疾病提供一定的策略。     

锌转运蛋白家族SLC39A/ZIP和SLC30A/ZnT的研究进展

必需微量元素锌通过催化和结构作用参与机体多种酶和蛋白功能,与机体发育、脑功能、骨骼生长、生殖健康及免疫功能等密切相关。补充锌可以一定程度防治儿童腹泻、慢性丙型肝炎、急性下呼吸道感染以及感冒等疾病,然而过多的锌具有毒性。因此,机体存在复杂的锌离子稳态体系维持锌离子的吸收、储存和丢失的平衡过程。已发现哺乳动物中SLC39A和SLC30A两个转运蛋白家族直接参与细胞内锌离子的稳态代谢。SLC39A家族又称ZIP家族,共有14个成员,该家族多个成员已被证明可促进细胞外或细胞器内的锌离子转运到细胞质;SLC30A家族又称ZnT家族,共有10个成员,与SLC39A家族功能相反,多个家族成员可协助锌离子从细胞质内流出到细胞外或流进到细胞器内。研究提示ZnT1、ZIP4和ZIP5参与小肠锌离子吸收过程,ZIP10和ZnT1参与肾脏锌离子再吸收过程,ZIP5、ZnT2和ZnT1参与胰腺锌离子分泌丢失过程。另有证据证明SLC39A和SLC30A两个家族的蛋白还可能参与许多疾病包括肿瘤及糖尿病的发生和发展。本文将对哺乳动物SLC39A和SLC30A两个锌转运蛋白家族的最新研究进展进行综述。     

线粒体蛋白质的转运

线粒体含有约1000种蛋白质,其中99%由细胞核DNA编码,在细胞质核糖体上合成后被分别转运至线粒体的内膜或外膜上、基质或膜间隙中。由众多分子机器组成的线粒体蛋白质转运系统参与了该生物学过程的执行。线粒体DNA编码的13种蛋白质也由该系统转运至线粒体内膜。本文就线粒体蛋白质转运系统中线粒体前体蛋白质的定位分选信号、转运复合物和转运途径作简要介绍。     

磷脂转运蛋白的研究

磷脂转运蛋白（ｐｈｏｓｐｈｏｌｉｐｉｄｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒｐｒｏｔｅｉｎ，ＰＬＴＰ）最初发现于线粒体和微粒体膜内，它具有促进肝脏可溶性物质交换和运输的作用，其后发现它对磷脂有较强的结合能力。现已在不同的物种如细菌、植物、动物和人体内分离出十几种磷脂转运蛋...     

线粒体小分子G蛋白

近年来,在线粒体上发现一类G蛋白,属于一类单体小分子GTP结合蛋白家族。该类蛋白质的主要作用可能参与线粒体膜融合,因而可能对线粒体的生理过程发挥重要的调节作用。目前认为,线粒体小分子G蛋白可能通过介导膜融合方式参与线粒体蛋白质的转运、类固醇激素的合成,以及精子生成等过程。     

溶质载体家族4结构、功能及疾病相关性研究进展

溶质载体家族4 (solute carrier family 4, SLC4)包括10个成员(SLC4A1～5, SLC4A7～11),分别表达于人体内多个组织,不同成员在其底物依赖、电荷转运化学计量和组织表达等方面有所不同,其共同功能是参与多种离子的跨膜交换,涉及许多重要的生理过程,如红细胞CO2运输、细胞体积和细胞内pH调节等。近几年,很多研究发现SLC4家族成员与人类疾病发生相关,当SLC4家族成员发生基因突变时,机体会发生一系列功能障碍进而导致一些疾病发生。本综述对SLC4家族各成员的结构和功能以及疾病相关性的研究进展进行了总结和分析,以期为此类疾病的防治提供参考。     

PUMA-BH3结构域短肽的原核表达、纯化及促凋亡活性鉴定

Bcl-2家族蛋白质在线粒体途径凋亡的调控机制中起着重要的作用,p53正向细胞凋亡调控因子（p53 up-regulated modulator of apoptosis protein,PUMA)是该家族的一种只含有BH3同源区域的促凋亡蛋白。为得到PUMA的BH3结构域短肽并检测其生物学活性,将人工合成的编码PUMA-BH3肽的DNA片段克隆到质粒pTYB2上,构建出表达PUMA-BH3-内含肽-几丁质结合域融合蛋白的原核表达载体pTYB2-PUMA-BH3,转化大肠杆菌BL-21(DE3)中IPTG诱导表达。表达的融合蛋白经几丁质亲和层析、二硫苏糖醇（DTT）的柱内还原,直接获得可溶性PUMA-BH3肽。通过研究重组PUMA-BH3肽在体外条件下对线粒体活力、线粒体肿胀度以及细胞色素c释放的影响来鉴定其生物学活性。结果表明,获得的可溶性PUMA-BH3肽能作用于离体线粒体,引起线粒体活力降低,线粒体肿胀并能诱导细胞色素c释放。环孢菌素A对此有一定的抑制作用,提示PUMA-BH3肽对线粒体的上述作用是通过促进通透性转运孔( PTP)开放实现的。经原核表达及纯化,获得了具有促凋亡活性的PUMA-BH3肽,为进一步研制控制凋亡过程的药物奠定了基础。     

SLC25A51——首次发现的哺乳动物细胞线粒体NAD+转运体

烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(NAD⁺)及其还原形式NADH是糖酵解和线粒体呼吸作用中重要的辅因子,在能量代谢中发挥重要作用。当线粒体缺乏NAD⁺细胞因不能持续产生ATP而出现功能异常。以往研究发现酵母与植物的线粒体上均存在NAD+转运体,可以将NAD+转运至线粒体。但哺乳动物线粒体内膜上是否有NAD+转运体,一直存有争议。近来,美国宾夕法尼亚一研究团队首次证明SLC25A51可以在哺乳动物线粒体上发挥NAD+转运蛋白的功能。     

金属转运蛋白SLC39A14的生理功能及作用机制研究进展

溶质载体家族39 (solute carrier family 39, SLC39; Zrt-and Irt-like proteins, ZIPs)作为金属离子转运蛋白家族共包括14个成员,均具有8个跨膜结构域。近年来,国内外研究者围绕SLC39A14 (又称ZIP14)的离子转运及生理功能开展了深入研究,提示SLC39A14具有转运Mn~(2+)、Fe~(2+)或Zn~(2+)等二价金属离子的功能,并通过转运Fe~(2+)而参与细胞铁死亡的发生。携带SLC39A14基因纯合突变的患者表现为锰离子蓄积及年轻型帕金森样体征。此外,有研究报道SLC39A14在肝脏疾病、胰岛素代谢、脂代谢及肌肉疾病中发挥关键作用,为丰富微量元素代谢调控网络及疾病防控提供了重要理论依据。然而,Slc39a14全身敲除与组织特异性敲除小鼠之间的表型不尽相同,因此其在不同组织中的金属离子转运功能及机制尚待深入研究。该文系统综述了SLC39A14在金属离子转运、代谢紊乱疾病和分子调控机制等方面的研究进展,并就未来研究方向进行了展望和讨论。     

The Human Gene SLC25A29, of Solute Carrier Family 25, Encodes a Mitochondrial Transporter of Basic Amino Acids

The human genome encodes 53 members of the solute carrier family 25 (SLC25), also called the mitochondrial carrier family, many of which have been shown to transport carboxylates, amino acids, nucleotides, and cofactors across the inner mitochondrial membrane, thereby connecting cytosolic and matrix functions. In this work, a member of this family, SLC25A29, previously reported to be a mitochondrial carnitine/acylcarnitine- or ornithine-like carrier, has been thoroughly characterized biochemically. The SLC25A29 gene was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, and the gene product was purified and reconstituted in phospholipid vesicles. Its transport properties and kinetic parameters demonstrate that SLC25A29 transports arginine, lysine, homoarginine, methylarginine and, to a much lesser extent, ornithine and histidine. Carnitine and acylcarnitines were not transported by SLC25A29. This carrier catalyzed substantial uniport besides a counter-exchange transport, exhibited a high transport affinity for arginine and lysine, and was saturable and inhibited by mercurial compounds and other inhibitors of mitochondrial carriers to various degrees. The main physiological role of SLC25A29 is to import basic amino acids into mitochondria for mitochondrial protein synthesis and amino acid degradation.     

Fourteen novel human members of mitochondrial solute carrier family 25 (SLC25) widely expressed in the central nervous system

Members of the solute carrier family 25 (SLC25) are known to transport molecules over the mitochondrial membrane. In this paper we present 14 novel members of SLC25 family in human. These were provided with following gene symbols by the HGNC: SLC25A32, SLC25A33, SLC25A34, SLC25A35, SLC25A37, SLC25A38, SLC25A39, SLC25A40, SLC25A41, SLC25A42, SLC25A43, SLC25A44, SLC25A45, and SLC25A46. We also identified the orthologues for these genes in rat and mouse. Moreover, we found yeast orthologues for 9 of these genes and show that the predicted substrate binding residues are highly conserved in the human and yeast proteins. We performed a comprehensive tissue localization study for 9 of these genes on a panel of 30 rat tissues with quantitative real-time polymerse chain reaction. We detected their mRNA in a wide number of tissues, both in brain and in periphery. This study provides an overall roadmap of the repertoire of the SLC25 family in mammals, showing that there are at least 46 genes in the human genome coding for mitochondrial transporters.     

The Human SLC25A33 and SLC25A36 Genes of Solute Carrier Family 25 Encode Two Mitochondrial Pyrimidine Nucleotide Transporters

The human genome encodes 53 members of the solute carrier family 25 (SLC25), also called the mitochondrial carrier family, many of which have been shown to transport inorganic anions, amino acids, carboxylates, nucleotides, and coenzymes across the inner mitochondrial membrane, thereby connecting cytosolic and matrix functions. Here two members of this family, SLC25A33 and SLC25A36, have been thoroughly characterized biochemically. These proteins were overexpressed in bacteria and reconstituted in phospholipid vesicles. Their transport properties and kinetic parameters demonstrate that SLC25A33 transports uracil, thymine, and cytosine (deoxy)nucleoside di- and triphosphates by an antiport mechanism and SLC25A36 cytosine and uracil (deoxy)nucleoside mono-, di-, and triphosphates by uniport and antiport. Both carriers also transported guanine but not adenine (deoxy)nucleotides. Transport catalyzed by both carriers was saturable and inhibited by mercurial compounds and other inhibitors of mitochondrial carriers to various degrees. In confirmation of their identity (i) SLC25A33 and SLC25A36 were found to be targeted to mitochondria and (ii) the phenotypes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells lacking RIM2, the gene encoding the well characterized yeast mitochondrial pyrimidine nucleotide carrier, were overcome by expressing SLC25A33 or SLC25A36 in these cells. The main physiological role of SLC25A33 and SLC25A36 is to import/export pyrimidine nucleotides into and from mitochondria, i.e. to accomplish transport steps essential for mitochondrial DNA and RNA synthesis and breakdown.     

The human gene SLC25A17 encodes a peroxisomal transporter of coenzyme A, FAD and NAD+

The essential cofactors CoA, FAD and NAD+ are synthesized outside the peroxisomes and therefore must be transported into the peroxisomal matrix where they are required for important processes. In the present study we have functionally identified and characterized SLC25A17 (solute carrier family 25 member 17), which is the only member of the mitochondrial carrier family that has previously been shown to be localized in the peroxisomal membrane. Recombinant and purified SLC25A17 was reconstituted into liposomes. Its transport properties and kinetic parameters demonstrate that SLC25A17 is a transporter of CoA, FAD, FMN and AMP, and to a lesser extent of NAD+, PAP (adenosine 3',5'-diphosphate) and ADP. SLC25A17 functioned almost exclusively by a counter-exchange mechanism, was saturable and was inhibited by pyridoxal 5'-phosphate and other mitochondrial carrier inhibitors. It was expressed to various degrees in all of the human tissues examined. Its main function is probably to transport free CoA, FAD and NAD+ into peroxisomes in exchange for intraperoxisomally generated PAP, FMN and AMP. The present paper is the first report describing the identification and characterization of a transporter for multiple free cofactors in peroxisomes.     

Histological Analysis of SLC38A6 (SNAT6) Expression in Mouse Brain Shows Selective Expression in Excitatory Neurons with High Expression in the Synapses

SLC38A6 is one of the newly found members of the solute carrier 38 family consisting of total 11 members, of which only 6 have been characterized so far. Being the only glutamine transporter family expressed in the brain, this family of proteins are most probably involved in the regulation of the glutamate-glutamine cycle, responsible for preventing excitotoxicity. We used immunohistochemistry to show that SLC38A6 is primarily expressed in excitatory neurons and is not expressed in the astrocytes. Using proximity ligation assay, we have quantified the interactions of this SLC38 family protein with other proteins with known localization in the cells, showing that this transporter is expressed at the synapses. Moreover, this study has enabled us to come up with a model suggesting sub-cellular localization of SLC38A6 at the synaptic membrane of the excitatory neurons.     

The SLC6 orphans are forming a family of amino acid transporters

Transporters in the human genome are grouped in solute carrier families (SLC). The SLC6 family is one of the biggest transporter families in the human genome comprising 20 members. It is usually referred to as the neurotransmitter transporter family because its founding members encode transporters for the neurotransmitters GABA, noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine. The family also includes a number of 'orphan' transporters, the function of which has remained elusive until recently. Identification of the broadly specific neutral amino acid transporter SLC6A19 (also called B(0)AT1) suggested that all orphan transporters may in fact be amino acid transporters. This was subsequently confirmed by the identification of SLC6A20 as the long-sought IMINO system, a proline transporter found in kidney, intestine and brain. Very recently, SLC6A15 was identified as the neutral amino acid transporter B(0)AT2. All amino acid transporters appear to cotransport only 1Na(+) together with the amino acid substrate. Both, B(0)AT1 and B(0)AT2 are chloride independent, whereas IMINO is chloride dependent. The amino acid transporters of the SLC6 family are functionally and sequence related to the recently crystallized leucine transporter from Aquifex aeolicus. The structure elegantly explains many of the mechanistic features of the SLC6 amino acid transporters.     

A Novel Member of Solute Carrier Family 25 (SLC25A42) Is a Transporter of Coenzyme A and Adenosine 3��,5��-Diphosphate in Human Mitochondria

Mitochondrial carriers are a family of proteins that transport metabolites, nucleotides, and cofactors across the inner mitochondrial membrane thereby connecting cytosolic and matrix functions. The essential cofactor coenzyme A (CoA) is synthesized outside the mitochondrial matrix and therefore must be transported into mitochondria where it is required for a number of fundamental processes. In this work we have functionally identified and characterized SLC25A42, a novel human member of the mitochondrial carrier family. The SLC25A42 gene (Haitina, T., Lindblom, J., Renström, T., and Fredriksson, R., 2006, Genomics 88, 779–790) was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, purified, and reconstituted into phospholipid vesicles. Its transport properties, kinetic parameters, and targeting to mitochondria demonstrate that SLC25A42 protein is a mitochondrial transporter for CoA and adenosine 3′,5′-diphosphate. SLC25A42 catalyzed only a counter-exchange transport, exhibited a high transport affinity for CoA, dephospho-CoA, ADP, and adenosine 3′,5′-diphosphate, was saturable and inhibited by bongkrekic acid and other inhibitors of mitochondrial carriers to various degrees. The main physiological role of SLC25A42 is to import CoA into mitochondria in exchange for intramitochondrial (deoxy)adenine nucleotides and adenosine 3′,5′-diphosphate. This is the first time that a mitochondrial carrier for CoA and adenosine 3′,5′-diphosphate has been characterized biochemically.The mitochondrial carrier family, or the solute carrier family 25 (SLC25),³ comprises a large group of proteins that transport a variety of substrates across the inner mitochondrial membrane and, in a few cases, across other membranes (1, 2). Common structural features of the mitochondrial carrier family members consist in a tripartite structure (three repeats of ∼100 amino acids), the presence of two transmembrane α-helices separated by hydrophilic loops in each repeat, and the presence of a signature motif at the C terminus of the first helix in each repeat (Ref. 3 and references therein). The SLC25 family is by far the largest of the currently known 43 SLC families. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome contains 35 members, that of Arabidopsis thaliana 58, and the human genome at least 48 SLC25 members. Until now, nearly 30 members and isoforms of this family have been identified in humans. These include the uncoupling protein and the carriers for ADP/ATP, phosphate, 2-oxoglutarate/malate, citrate, carnitine/acylcarnitine, dicarboxylates, ornithine and other basic amino acids, oxodicarboxylates, deoxynucleotides and thiamine pyrophosphate, aspartate-glutamate, glutamate, S-adenosylmethionine, ATP-Mg/Pi, pyrimidine nucleotides, and adenine nucleotides in peroxisomes (see Ref. 1 for a review and Refs. 4–8). The present investigation was undertaken to identify the function of SLC25A42, a novel member of the SLC25 family recently found in the human genome (9). SLC25A42 is 318 amino acids long and is highly expressed in virtually all tissues, in most at higher levels than many other SLC25 family members (9).In this study we provide direct evidence that SLC25A42 is a mitochondrial transporter for CoA and PAP. SLC25A42 was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, purified, reconstituted in phospholipid vesicles, and shown to transport CoA, dephospho-CoA, PAP, and (deoxy)adenine nucleotides with high specificity and by a counter-exchange mechanism. The main function of SLC25A42 is probably to catalyze the entry of CoA into the mitochondria in exchange for adenine nucleotides and PAP.     

The mitochondrial solute carrier SLC25A5 at Xq24 is a novel candidate gene for non-syndromic intellectual disability

Loss-of-function mutations in several different neuronal pathways have been related to intellectual disability (ID). Such mutations often are found on the X chromosome in males since they result in functional null alleles. So far, microdeletions at Xq24 reported in males always have been associated with a syndromic form of ID due to the loss of UBE2A. Here, we report on overlapping microdeletions at Xq24 that do not include UBE2A or affect its expression, in patients with non-syndromic ID plus some additional features from three unrelated families. The smallest region of overlap, confirmed by junction sequencing, harbors two members of the mitochondrial solute carrier family 25, SLC25A5 and SLC25A43. However, identification of an intragenic microdeletion including SLC25A43 but not SLC25A5 in a healthy boy excluded a role for SLC25A43 in cognition. Therefore, our findings point to SLC25A5 as a novel gene for non-syndromic ID. This highly conserved gene is expressed ubiquitously with high levels in cortex and hippocampus, and a presumed role in mitochondrial exchange of ADP/ATP. Our data indicate that SLC25A5 is involved in memory formation or establishment, which could add mitochondrial processes to the wide array of pathways that regulate normal cognitive functions.     

The human uncoupling proteins 5 and 6 (UCP5/SLC25A14 and UCP6/SLC25A30) transport sulfur oxyanions,phosphate and dicarboxylates

The human genome encodes 53 members of the solute carrier family 25 (SLC25), also called the mitochondrial carrier family. In this work, two members of this family, UCP5 (BMCP1, brain mitochondrial carrier protein 1 encoded by SLC25A14) and UCP6 (KMCP1, kidney mitochondrial carrier protein 1 encoded by SLC25A30) have been thoroughly characterized biochemically. They were overexpressed in bacteria, purified and reconstituted in phospholipid vesicles. Their transport properties and kinetic parameters demonstrate that UCP5 and UCP6 transport inorganic anions (sulfate, sulfite, thiosulfate and phosphate) and, to a lesser extent, a variety of dicarboxylates (e.g. malonate, malate and citramalate) and, even more so, aspartate and (only UCP5) glutamate and tricarboxylates. Both carriers catalyzed a fast counter-exchange transport and a very low uniport of substrates. Transport was saturable and inhibited by mercurials and other mitochondrial carrier inhibitors at various degrees. The transport affinities of UCP5 and UCP6 were higher for sulfate and thiosulfate than for any other substrate, whereas the specific activity of UCP5 was much higher than that of UCP6. It is proposed that a main physiological role of UCP5 and UCP6 is to catalyze the export of sulfite and thiosulfate (the H₂S degradation products) from the mitochondria, thereby modulating the level of the important signal molecule H₂S.     

SLC25A23 augments mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake,interacts with MCU,and induces oxidative stress–mediated cell death

Emerging findings suggest that two lineages of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake participate during active and resting states: 1) the major eukaryotic membrane potential–dependent mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter and 2) the evolutionarily conserved exchangers and solute carriers, which are also involved in ion transport. Although the influx of Ca²⁺ across the inner mitochondrial membrane maintains metabolic functions and cell death signal transduction, the mechanisms that regulate mitochondrial Ca²⁺ accumulation are unclear. Solute carriers—solute carrier 25A23 (SLC25A23), SLC25A24, and SLC25A25—represent a family of EF-hand–containing mitochondrial proteins that transport Mg-ATP/Pi across the inner membrane. RNA interference–mediated knockdown of SLC25A23 but not SLC25A24 and SLC25A25 decreases mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake and reduces cytosolic Ca²⁺ clearance after histamine stimulation. Ectopic expression of SLC25A23 EF-hand–domain mutants exhibits a dominant-negative phenotype of reduced mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake. In addition, SLC25A23 interacts with mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter (MCU; CCDC109A) and MICU1 (CBARA1) while also increasing I_MCU. In addition, SLC25A23 knockdown lowers basal mROS accumulation, attenuates oxidant-induced ATP decline, and reduces cell death. Further, reconstitution with short hairpin RNA–insensitive SLC25A23 cDNA restores mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake and superoxide production. These findings indicate that SLC25A23 plays an important role in mitochondrial matrix Ca²⁺ influx.