三阴性乳腺癌术后辅助化疗方案的药学研究

目的:调查三阴性乳腺癌术后辅助化疗三种方案的临床应用情况,制订药学监护点。方法:收集我院2009年12月至2017年5月168例三阴性乳腺癌患者,化疗方案选用TAC、TP或AC→T方案,对三组患者进行具体分析。结果:胃肠道反应:TAC组Ⅰ度8例,Ⅱ度28例;AC→T组Ⅰ度4例,Ⅱ度100例;Ⅲ度4例;TP组Ⅱ度20例,Ⅲ度4例。骨髓抑制:TAC组Ⅱ度32例,Ⅲ度4例;AC→T组Ⅱ度92例,Ⅲ度16例;TP组Ⅱ度20例,Ⅲ度4例。三组不同化疗方案TNBC患者的胃肠道反应、骨髓抑制的发生情况比较差异均无统计学意义(P0.05)。一年肿瘤无进展生存率:TAC 88.9%;AC→T 92.6%;TP 100%,平均化疗费用:TAC20686.94±199.87元;AC→T 19470.83±150.988元;TP 12895.42±276.341元,平均住院天数为8.808±0.2792天;10.213±0.2429天;10.958±0.3782天。结论:在TAC、TP和AC→T方案中,TP方案治疗三阴性乳腺癌的临床疗效可,副反应少,费用少,是较优选的治疗方案。     

三阴乳腺癌新辅助化疗的预后与Ki-67、TOPK的表达情况相关性研究

摘要 目的：研究三阴乳腺癌（TNBC）新辅助化疗（NACT）的预后与Ki-67、TOPK的表达情况的相关性。方法：回顾性收集2014年3月至2016年6月期间我院收治并行NACT的TNBC患者90例作为研究对象,免疫组化法检测肿瘤组织中Ki-67和TOPK的表达,分析两者的表达与患者临床资料的关系,应用COX回归模型进行生存分析,分析影响TNBC患者预后的独立危险因素。结果：在治疗情况方面,91.11 %（82/90）的患者接受了≥4个周期的NACT治疗,84.44 %（76/90）的患者接受了手术治疗,术后pCR为22.22 %（20/90）,ORR为75.56 %（68/90）。为期5年的随访中,90例患者中共死亡8例（死于TNBC者6例,其他原因2例）,失访2例;治疗后Ki-67和TOPK的阳性率均显著低于治疗前（P＜0.05）;Ki-67、TOPK阳性和阴性表达病例在不同TNM分期、淋巴结是否转移上具有显著性差异（P＜0.05）;Ki-67和TOPK阳性表达患者的无进展生存期（PFS）和总生存期（OS）显著短于阴性表达者（P＜0.05）;TNM分期、淋巴结转移、Ki-67和TOPK阳性表达均为影响TNBC患者预后的独立危险因素。结论：Ki-67和TOPK在TNBC组织中的表达与患者的病理学特征及预后密切相关,是影响预后的独立危险因素。     

新辅助化疗配合手术治疗中晚期乳腺癌的临床效果分析

目的:观察新辅助化疗配合手术治疗中晚期乳腺癌的临床效果,为临床研究提供参考。方法:选取我院2009年5月-2011年4月收治的中晚期乳腺癌患者107例,根据治疗方法的不同,将患者分为新辅助化疗组和对照组。新辅助化疗组采取术前辅助化疗,而对照组术前不接受化疗。观察新辅助化疗组患者的近期临床疗效、毒副反应发生率;比较两组患者的手术时间、术中出血量等;术后随访三年,记录两组患者的肿瘤局部复发率及远处转移率。结果:新辅助化疗组患者治疗的总有效率为79.66%,毒副反应的发生率为33.89%;新辅助化疗组的平均手术时间、术中出血量均低于对照组,差异具有统计学意义(P0.05)。新辅助化疗组患者的局部复发率为5.08%,远处转移率为6.78%;对照组患者局部复发率为12.50%,远处转移率为18.75%。新辅助化疗组患者的肿瘤复发转移率低于对照组,差异具有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:在中晚期乳腺癌的临床治疗中,术前对患者实施新辅助化疗具有明显的效果,患者近期疗效良好,毒副反应可耐受,且手术后的复发转移率相对较低,值得推广应用。     

乳腺癌化疗现状及相关研究进展

乳腺癌是除非上皮来源肿瘤中女性最常见的恶性肿瘤,在美国平均每3名女性中就有一名患乳腺癌,是女性肿瘤致死中的第二大原因,给政府经济造成了很大的损失。目前,乳腺癌主要是以手术治疗为主,而化疗,放疗等也作为相当重要的辅助治疗应用于临床。这种手术加化疗的治疗方法一直可以取得很好的疗效,甚至于可以保住乳房。近年来,乳腺癌的化疗已逐步成为其治疗的首选方式,包括术后辅助化疗和术前的新辅助化疗。但由于化疗药物的滥用和肿瘤本身的异质性或是其他原因,越来越多的肿瘤耐药性报道给乳腺癌的化疗带来了很大的挑战。而这种肿瘤耐药性的分子机制尚不是很清楚。本文将从乳腺癌的概述,乳腺癌化疗的现状及乳腺癌化疗的前景来综述这一灾难性疾病。     

三阴性乳腺癌靶向治疗相关信号通路及其临床应用

三阴性乳腺癌(triple negative breast cancer, TNBC)占全部乳腺癌病例的15%~20%,其雌激素受体、孕激素受体和人表皮生长因子受体2均为阴性表达,也是所有乳腺癌亚型中侵袭性和恶性程度较高的一种。TNBC还具有较高的复发风险和较差的预后特性。由于异质性高、临床特征复杂,化疗、放疗和手术切除等手段仍是当前TNBC治疗的主要方法。然而,严重的副作用、高复发风险和健康损伤等问题仍然不容忽视。随着TNBC基础研究的进展,越来越多的TNBC靶向治疗相关信号通路被揭示,而且其中有一部分已进入临床试验,为TNBC的治疗提供了充满希望和前景的分子靶点。此外,其中一些治疗靶点在TNBC精确分型和精准治疗的临床实践中发挥着重要的作用。本文对TNBC靶向治疗中经典的合成致死通路、PI3K/AKT/mTOR通路、PD-1/PD-L1免疫通路等信号通路及其临床试验进行了综述,同时介绍了近几年比较具有潜力的TNBC靶向治疗信号通路,包括肿瘤血管生成通路、多胺合成和分解代谢通路、SLC3A2/LAT1通路以及IGF-1/IGF-1R/FAK/YAP信号转导通路等。     

乳腺癌新辅助化疗的研究进展

乳腺癌是一种女性最常见的恶性肿瘤,近年来我国乳腺癌的发病率呈逐年上升趋势。研究证实,新辅助化疗不仅可使不能手术的晚期乳腺癌患者获得手术机会,而且也增加了部分患者的保乳概率,但是约20%的乳腺癌患者不能从新辅助化疗中获益,并影响后续治疗效果。因此,制定合理的、个体化的新辅助化疗方案对于提高乳腺癌患者的生存质量和改善其预后尤为重要。目前,研究已发现的NCT相关的预测因子主要包块肿瘤类型、分子分型、ER、PR、Ki67等,而HER2、TOP2A、P53、PRAP单独作为预测因子的还存在争议。本文主要对乳腺癌新辅助化疗的现状、各种预测因子的作用及其不足之处进行了综述。     

乳腺癌患者化疗后乙肝病毒再激活及拉米夫定预防性应用的临床研究

目的:探讨化疗引起的乳腺癌患者肝功能损害与乙肝病毒(HBV)感染的相关性及抗病毒治疗在预防化疗引起的HBV再激活中的作用。方法:2006年3月-2010年10月在武汉市第三医院接受化疗的病理确诊为乳腺癌患者(包括术后辅助化疗)为研究对象,比较HBs Ag阴性138例和HBs Ag阳性50例患者化疗后肝功能损害的发生情况,并分析在HBs Ag阳性患者中,预防性使用(21例)与未预防性使用(27例)抗病毒药物拉米夫定后乙肝病毒再激活率的差异。结果:化疗后出现肝功能损害的乳腺癌患者中,HBs Ag阳性患者(31.25%)与HBs Ag阴性患者(16.67%)所占比例的差异有统计学意义(P<0.001)。化疗前预防性使用拉米夫定(4.62%)与未预防性使用(25.93%)拉米夫定,患者出现HBV再激活率的差异亦有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论:乳腺癌患者化疗后,HBs Ag阳性患者较HBs Ag阴性患者更易出现肝功能损害,预防性使用核苷类似物抗病毒药物拉米夫定,可明显降低乳腺癌合并乙肝患者化疗后HBV再激活肝炎的发生。     

青年女性三阴性乳腺癌的临床病理学特征及其影响预后的多因素分析

目的:探讨青年(年龄≤35岁)女性三阴性乳腺癌(TNBC)和非三阴性乳腺癌(NTNBC)腋窝淋巴结转移(ALNM)患者的临床病理学特性与影响预后的危险因素。方法:回顾性分析2005年1月至2008年12月在青岛大学附属医院住院手术治疗并经临床病理学证实的136例青年女性乳腺癌患者的临床资料。根据免疫组化检测结果将其分为TNBC组(75例)和NTNBC组(61例);对比分析两组青年女性乳腺癌患者在年龄、婚姻、妊娠、生育、哺乳、乳腺癌家族史、病程、临床病理学分类、肿瘤组织学分级、肿瘤最大直径、ALNM、脏器转移及临床分期与生存期之间的相关性。5年总生存期(OS)和无瘤生存期(DFS)分析采用Ka-plan-Meier法。影响预后的因素采用Cox比例风险回归模型分析。结果:本组青年女性乳腺癌136例,占同期手术治疗乳腺癌1063例的12.79%;在218例(20.51%)TNBC患者中,青年女性TNBC患者75例(34.40%);青年女性NTNBC患者61例,占845例NTNBC患者的7.22%。在乳腺癌家族史(21.33%vs5.19%)和病程5个月(29.33%vs19.67%)等临床特征中,两组乳腺癌患者比较有统计学意义(P0.05)。在肿瘤最大直径5 cm(20.00%vs8.20%)、肿瘤组织学分级Ⅲ级(46.67%vs31.15%)、临床分期Ⅲ期(25.33%vs11.48%)、术后局部复发(17.33%vs11.48%)、ALNM(57.033%vs39.34%)以及脏器转移(16.00%vs4.92%)等临床病理学特征性指标中,两组乳腺癌患者比较存在明显差异(P0.05)。5年OS和DFS分别为76.47%和67.65%;TNBC 5年OS和DFS分别为69.33%和60.00%,NTNBC 5年OS和DFS分别为85.25%和77.05%。比较两组乳腺癌的5年OS及DFS存在明显差异(x2=4.374,P=0.030;x2=4.4684,P=0.035)。Cox回归分析结果表明:病程和乳腺癌家族史是TNBC患者的隐匿性和易感性因素;肿瘤最大直径、肿瘤组织学分级、术后局部复发、临床分期、ALNM和脏器转移等6项指标是影响青年女性TNBC患者预后的危险因素(x2=6.684~5.058,P=0.048~0.025)。结论:青年女性TNBC患者具有乳腺癌家族倾向、病情隐匿、临床分期晚、增殖侵袭性强、复发转移率高、预后较差的临床病理学特征,也是影响预后的危险因素。     

乳腺癌患者新辅助化疗后ER、PR、HER2、Ki67表达变化及临床意义

目的:研究乳腺癌患者在新辅助化疗后ER、PR、HER2、Ki67的变化及临床意义。方法:选择2012年1月-2017年12月至我院进行乳腺癌新辅助化疗的患者176例进行临床研究。所有患者化疗前及术后行经B超引导下核芯针穿刺取病理活检,检测ER、PR、Ki67、HER2的表达,分析其变化情况。结果:176例乳腺癌患者新辅助化疗前ER阳性为57例,新辅助化疗后ER阳性为69例,新辅助化疗前ER阴性为119例,新辅助化疗后ER阴性107例;新辅助化疗前后状态改变了34例(19.32%),其中12例新辅助化疗前ER阴性转变为ER阳性,22例新辅助化疗前ER阳性转变为新辅助化疗后ER阴性,化疗前后患者ER表达变化有统计学差异(x~2=8.044,P=0.037);176例乳腺癌患者新辅助化疗前PR阳性为83例,新辅助化疗后PR阳性为89例,新辅助化疗前PR阴性为93例,新辅助化疗后PR阴性87例;新辅助化疗前后状态改变了82例(46.59%),其中45例新辅助化疗前PR阴性转变为PR阳性,37例新辅助化疗前PR阳性转变为新辅助化疗后PR阴性,化疗前后患者PR表达变化有统计学差异(x~2=6.311,P=0.049);176例乳腺癌患者新辅助化疗前HER2阳性为31例,新辅助化疗后HER2阳性为30例,新辅助化疗前HER2阴性为145例,新辅助化疗后HER2阴性146例;新辅助化疗前后状态改变了3例(1.70%),其中1例新辅助化疗前HER2阴性转变为HER2阳性,2例新辅助化疗前HER2阳性转变为新辅助化疗后HER2阴性,化疗前后患者HER2表达变化无统计学差异(x~2=0.522,P=0.945);176例乳腺癌患者新辅助化疗前Ki67阳性为104例,新辅助化疗后Ki67阳性为95例,新辅助化疗前Ki67阴性为72例,新辅助化疗后Ki67阴性81例;新辅助化疗前后状态改变了109例(61.93%),其中54例新辅助化疗前Ki67阴性转变为Ki67阳性,55例新辅助化疗前Ki67阳性转变为新辅助化疗后Ki67阴性,化疗前后患者Ki67表达变化有统计学差异(x~2=2.936,P=0.048),经过新辅助化疗后,Ki67出现上调表达最高,为23.86%,同时也是下调表达最高,为38.07%。HER2表达保持不变最高,为98.30%。结论:新辅助化疗会对乳腺癌患者ER、PR、Ki67的表达造成影响,其中对Ki67的影响最为显著。     

长链非编码RNA在三阴性乳腺癌耐药中的作用

三阴性乳腺癌(triple negative breast cancer,TNBC)缺乏有效的治疗靶点,且长期的化学治疗易产生耐药性使临床治疗效果进一步降低。耐药性已成为阻碍TNBC维持治疗的主要障碍,与此同时,TNBC中存在大量差异表达的且在耐药过程中发挥重要作用的长链非编码RNA(long non-coding RNA,lncRNA)。本文以化疗药物、放射、靶向和免疫治疗为切入点,总结了相关lncRNA的潜在靶点及调控机制,从lncRNA方面分析耐药相关基因的表达调控,最后提出针对lncRNA的可能治疗策略,为探索新的治疗方向提供参考。     

Nodal expression in triple-negative breast cancer: Cellular effects of its inhibition following doxorubicin treatment

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) represents an aggressive cancer subtype characterized by the lack of expression of estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR) and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). The independence of TNBC from these growth promoting factors eliminates the efficacy of therapies which specifically target them, and limits TNBC patients to traditional systemic neo/adjuvant chemotherapy. To better understand the growth advantage of TNBC – in the absence of ER, PR and HER2, we focused on the embryonic morphogen Nodal (associated with the cancer stem cell phenotype), which is re-expressed in aggressive breast cancers. Most notably, our previous data demonstrated that inhibition of Nodal signaling in breast cancer cells reduces their tumorigenic capacity. Furthermore, inhibiting Nodal in other cancers has resulted in improved effects of chemotherapy, although the mechanisms for this remain unknown. Thus, we hypothesized that targeting Nodal in TNBC cells in combination with conventional chemotherapy may improve efficacy and represent a potential new strategy. Our preliminary data demonstrate that Nodal is highly expressed in TNBC when compared to invasive hormone receptor positive samples. Treatment of Nodal expressing TNBC cell lines with a neutralizing anti-Nodal antibody reduces the viability of cells that had previously survived treatment with the anthracycline doxorubicin. We show that inhibiting Nodal may alter response mechanisms employed by cancer cells undergoing DNA damage. These data suggest that development of therapies which target Nodal in TNBC may lead to additional treatment options in conjunction with chemotherapy regimens – by altering signaling pathways critical to cellular survival.     

Silencing of Prrx1b suppresses cellular proliferation,migration, invasion and epithelial–mesenchymal transition in triple‐negative breast cancer

Triple‐negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive tumour subtype associated with poor prognosis. The mechanisms involved in TNBC progression remains largely unknown. To date, there are no effective therapeutic targets for this tumour subtype. Paired‐related homeobox 1b (Prrx1b), one of major isoforms of Prrx1, has been identified as a new epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) inducer. However, the function of Prrx1b in TNBC has not been elucidated. In this study, we found that Prrx1b was significantly up‐regulated in TNBC and associated with tumour size and vascular invasion of breast cancer. Silencing of Prrx1b suppressed the proliferation, migration and invasion of basal‐like cancer cells. Moreover, silencing of Prrx1b prevented Wnt/β‐catenin signaling pathway and induced the mesenchymal‐epithelial transition (MET). Taken together, our data indicated that Prrx1b may be an important regulator of EMT in TNBC cells and a new therapeutic target for interventions against TNBC invasion and metastasis.     

Featured Article: Teriflunomide,an immunomodulatory drug,exerts anticancer activity in triple negative breast cancer cells

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is defined as a group of primary breast cancers lacking expression of estrogen, progesterone, and human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER-2) receptors, characterized by higher relapse rate and lower survival compared with other subtypes. Due to lack of identified targets and molecular heterogeneity, conventional chemotherapy is the only available option for treatment of TNBC, but non-discordant positive therapeutic efficacy could not be achieved. Here, we demonstrated that these TNBC cells were sensitive to teriflunomide, which was a well-known immunomodulatory drug for treatment of relapsing multiple sclerosis (MS). Potent anti-cancer effects in TNBC in vitro, including proliferation inhibition, cell cycle delay, cell apoptosis, and suppression of cell motility and invasiveness, could be achieved with this agent. Of note, we showed that multiple signals involved in TNBC proliferation, survival, migratory, and invasive potential were under regulation by teriflunomide. Among them, we identified down-regulation of growth factor receptors to abolish growth maintenance, suppression of c-Myc, and cyclin D1 to contribute to its anti-proliferative effect, modulation of components of cell cycle to induce S-phase arrest, degradation of Bcl-xL, and up-regulation of BAX via activation of MAPK pathway to induce apoptosis, and inhibition of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) expression, and inactivation of Src/FAK to reduce TNBC migration and invasion. The results identified teriflunomide may be of therapeutic benefit for the more aggressive and difficult-to-treat breast cancer subtype, indicating the use of teriflunomide for clinical trials for treatment of TNBC patients.     

磷酸化蛋白质组学在三阴性乳腺癌诊治研究中的进展

三阴性乳腺癌是乳腺癌中恶性程度最高的亚型,其治疗仍以化疗为主,但容易出现耐药,且患者预后较差。随着蛋白质组学技术的发展,磷酸化蛋白质组学研究取得了长足的进步,并在肿瘤发生发展机制和诊治研究中得到了广泛的应用。同样,磷酸化蛋白质组学在三阴性乳腺癌的发生发展、靶向治疗和耐药机制研究等方面也发挥着重要作用。本文主要对目前磷酸化蛋白质组学在三阴性乳腺癌中的研究进展进行综述,旨在为基于磷酸化蛋白质组学的三阴性乳腺癌发生发展机制和诊治研究提供指导和帮助。     

Triple-negative breast cancer cells rely on kinase-independent functions of CDK8 to evade NK-cell-mediated tumor surveillance

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive malignant disease that is responsible for approximately 15% of breast cancers. The standard of care relies on surgery and chemotherapy but the prognosis is poor and there is an urgent need for new therapeutic strategies. Recent in silico studies have revealed an inverse correlation between recurrence-free survival and the level of cyclin-dependent kinase 8 (CDK8) in breast cancer patients. CDK8 is known to have a role in natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity, but its function in TNBC progression and immune cell recognition or escape has not been investigated. We have used a murine model of orthotopic breast cancer to study the tumor-intrinsic role of CDK8 in TNBC. Knockdown of CDK8 in TNBC cells impairs tumor regrowth upon surgical removal and prevents metastasis. In the absence of CDK8, the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is impaired and immune-mediated tumor-cell clearance is facilitated. CDK8 drives EMT in TNBC cells in a kinase-independent manner. In vivo experiments have confirmed that CDK8 is a crucial regulator of NK-cell-mediated immune evasion in TNBC. The studies also show that CDK8 is involved in regulating the checkpoint inhibitor programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1). The CDK8–PD-L1 axis is found in mouse and human TNBC cells, underlining the importance of CDK8-driven immune cell evasion in these highly aggressive breast cancer cells. Our data link CDK8 to PD-L1 expression and provide a rationale for investigating the possibility of CDK8-directed therapy for TNBC.Subject terms: Breast cancer, Immune evasion     

Platinum-based systematic therapy in triple-negative breast cancer

Due to the lack of definitive hormone receptors, triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients receive little clinical benefit from endocrine or molecular targeted therapies, leading to a highly aggressive disease with a high recurrence rate and poor prognosis. In the past decades, chemotherapy has been the mainstay of treatment for TNBC, with taxane/anthracyclines as the representative regimen. However, increasing irreversible cardiotoxicity of anthracyclines and drug-resistance had to be noticed. Gradually, platinum-based chemotherapy has become a topic of interest for researchers. Based on the accumulating studies on platinum-containing regimens for TNBC patients, we will summarize the progress of relevant clinical trials focusing on platinum monotherapy (e.g., cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin) or in combination with other therapeutic modalities (e.g., other chemotherapeutic agents, molecular targeted therapies and immunotherapy). To further evaluate patient response to platinum and screen for the optimal population to benefit from platinum, we will also analyze current potential biomarkers, such as breast cancer susceptibility genes (BRCA1/2), homologous recombination repair deficiency (HRD), tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), TP53 family and other emerging indicators (e.g., intrinsic subtype, cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) expression, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9)).     

Up-Regulation of RFC3 Promotes Triple Negative Breast Cancer Metastasis and is Associated With Poor Prognosis Via EMT

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) was regarded as the most aggressive and mortal subtype of breast cancer (BC) since the molecular subtype system has been established. Abundant studies have revealed that epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) played a pivotal role during breast cancer metastasis and progression, especially in TNBC. Herein, we showed that inhibition the expression of replication factor C subunit 3 (RFC3) significantly attenuated TNBC metastasis and progression, which was associated with EMT signal pathway. In TNBC cells, knockdown of RFC3 can down-regulate mesenchymal markers and up-regulate epithelial markers, significantly attenuated cell proliferation, migration and invasion. Additionally, silencing RFC3 expression can decrease nude mice tumor volume, weight and relieve lung metastasis in vivo. Furthermore, we also demonstrated that overexpression of RFC3 in TNBC showed increased metastasis, progression and poor prognosis. We confirmed all of these results by immunohistochemistry analysis in 127 human TNBC tissues and found that RFC3 expression was significantly associated with poor prognosis in TNBC. Taken all these findings into consideration, we can conclude that up-regulation of RFC3 promotes TNBC progression through EMT signal pathway. Therefore, RFC3 could be an independent prognostic factor and therapeutic target for TNBC.     

Single peptides and combination modalities for triple negative breast cancer

Unlike other types of breast cancers (BCs), no specific therapeutic targets have been established for triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). Therefore, chemotherapy and radiotherapy are the only available adjuvant therapeutic choices for TNBC. New emerging reports show that TNBC is associated with higher numbers of intratumoral tumor infiltrating lymphocytes. This is indicative of host anti-TNBC immune surveillance and suggesting that immunotherapy can be considered as a therapeutic approach for TNBC management. Recent progress in molecular mechanisms of tumor-immune system interaction and cancer vaccine development studies, fast discoveries and FDA approvals of immune checkpoint inhibitors, chimeric antigen receptor T-cells, and oncolytic virotherapy have significantly attracted attention and research directions toward the immunotherapeutic approach to TNBC. Here in this review different aspects of TNBC immunotherapies including the host immune system-tumor interactions, the tumor microenvironment, the relevant molecular targets for immunotherapy, and clinical trials in the field are discussed.