The dietary habits of the Brown bear (Ursus arctos) in western Greece

Knowledge of the dietary habits of an endangered species is essential to its management and conservation. The brown bear (Ursus arctos) exists in two isolated population in Greece, but only initial management actions have been taken to improve the habitat of this species. To improve our understanding of the ecology and habitat requirements of this species, we examined the dietary habits of the brown bear in the Panagia-Grevena region, of Macedonia, Greece. In total, 360 scats of brown bear were collected between 2002 and 2004 during spring, summer and autumn months. Scats were analyzed by their frequency of occurrence, volumetric and dry weights, and their importance values. Microhistological analysis was applied to estimate the proportion of wild and cultivated plants in the diet. The most important type of food in the spring was green vegetation, while, in the summer, fruits of Pyrus sp., Morus sp., Prunus sp. and Rubus sp. were important food items. In autumn, hard masts, mainly oak (Quercus sp.), were essential foods for the brown bear. The frequency of vertebrates in the diet was higher in the summer and autumn while that of invertebrates was higher in the spring. In summary, the brown bear is an omnivorous species that lives in Greece and adapts its diet according to food availability and human activities in its habitat. For this reason, human activities in the study area must take the needs and requirement of brown bears into consideration.     

Long-term variation in fruiting and the food habits of wild Japanese macaques on Kinkazan Island, northern Japan

We studied the relationship between the food habits of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) and the availability of nuts (Fagus crenata, Zelkova serrata, Carpinus spp., and Torreya nucifera) on Kinkazan Island, northern Japan, from 1997 to 2005 to examine the long-term variations in both food habits and availability. The food habits of the monkeys showed clear seasonal changes: the staple foods were woody leaves and flowers in spring (May and June), woody leaves and seeds or fruits other than nuts in summer (July and August), nuts and seeds or fruits other than nuts in fall (September-November), and herbaceous plants in winter (December-April). The availability of nuts, combinations of masting species, and energy production varied among years. Food habits varied among years, but the magnitude of variability of food habits differed among seasons, with large variability during summer and winter, and small variability in spring. Food availability was poor in summer and winter, but in several years the monkeys were able to consume nuts during those seasons. We emphasize the importance of conducting long-term studies on both food availability and the food habits of animals in the temperate zone.     

Multi-annual variation in the diet composition and frugivory of the Japanese marten (Martes melampus) in western Tokyo,central Japan

To examine multi-annual variations in the food habits of the Japanese marten (Martes melampus), we analyzed the composition of marten feces in the Bonbori Forest Path in western Tokyo, central Japan, in two time periods a decade apart (1997–1998 and 2007–2008). The staple foods of martens in both periods were fruits/seeds and animal materials (mainly insects and mammals). The martens fed frequently on fruits/seeds and insects throughout the year in both periods, but the consumption of mammals, birds, and arthropods/other animals showed seasonal variations. The composition of fruits/seeds and the frequency of occurrence for each fruit-bearing species differed between the two periods. These results suggest that both the foraging strategy and role of martens as a seed dispersal agent changes yearly, presumably according to multi-annual variation in the availability of prey animals and/or fruits. We emphasize the importance of multi-annual studies both on food habits and to monitor food availability in the temperate region where the food environment changes among seasons, as well as years.     

小兴安岭地区黑熊的食性分析

2004 年5 月至2005 年11 月,在黑熊主要分布区小兴安岭利用无线电遥测技术跟踪黑熊并判定黑熊取食生境,收集黑熊粪便51 堆,利用粪便组织学分析方法对黑熊食物组成成分以及食物的选择性进行分析。结果表明:春初、秋末黑熊觅食生境为海拔400 ～ 560 m 的针叶林、针阔混交林;春末、夏初觅食生境为阔叶林、针阔混交林;夏季、秋初觅食生境为阔叶林、针阔混交林、河岸杂木林等。黑熊的大宗食物为植物,即使是夏季食物种类丰富季节,食物中植物成分仍近70% 。黑熊食物表现出季节性变化,季节不同采食种类不同,采食植物性食物的部位也不同。春季黑熊的食物种类最少,食物多样性指数为2.317,食物均匀性指数为0.5923,夏季的食物种类最丰富,食物多样性指数2.628,食物均匀性指数0.6367,秋季食物种类比春季丰富,但没有夏季丰富,食物多样性指数为2.361,食物均匀性最小,仅为0 5173。黑熊对植物类食物具有选择性,对红松、蒙古栎、核桃楸等坚果和猕猴桃、山桃等浆果类食物表现为正选择性;而对木贼、禾本科、榆、宽叶苔草、色木、桦、杨、柳表现为负选择性。      

Seasonal home range use by Japanese monkeys in the snowy Shiga heights

Between December 1974 and November 1975 (157 days), it was found that seasonal home range changes in the Shiga C troop were closely related to food changes, vegetation, and the existence of neighbouring troops. The detailed points clarified may be summarized as follows: (1) The seasonal home range sizes from winter to autumn were 1.23 km², 1.46 km², 1.69 km², and 1.21 km², respectively, and the annual size was 3.66 km²; (2) The food changed from bark and buds of trees in winter to young leaves and stems of grasses and trees in spring and summer, and fruits in autumn; (3) Each home range clearly changed according to the phenology of the plants used as food at each season; (4) The food abundance for the monkeys was extremely poor in winter, relatively poor in summer, plentiful in spring, and the best in autumn; and (5) The Shiga C troop and the neighbouring Shiga B₂ troop overlap in their home ranges in spring and autumn, but are separated during winter and summer.     

卡拉麦里山自然保护区蒙古野驴的食性

蒙古野驴(Equus hemionus hemionus),国家一级保护动物.由于人类活动的加剧,分布范围缩小,加之过度狩猎,目前已处于濒危状态.     

Five-year study on the autumn food habits of the Asiatic black bear in relation to nut production

We studied the autumn food habits of the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) from 1993 to 1997, based on 202 fecal samples in the Chichibu Mountains, central Japan. Nuts occupied the highest proportions of autumn foods (59.9–85.8% important values). Although the proportion of nuts of Quercus crispula, Fagus crenata and Fagus japonica varied greatly between the years, acorns of Q.crispula were most prevalent in four of the five years. We also determined the relative nut production of these three species by counting the number of nuts or cupules on the ground. Black bears consumed the nuts according to their relative availabilities. Nuts of Q.crispula appeared to be the most important food because: (i) these nuts were eaten in the highest proportion in four of the five study years; and (ii) even in poor years the bears consumed acorns of Q.crispula, whereas nuts of Fagus spp. were not consumed. We discuss the significance of alternative foods for black bears in relation to food tree diversity in the forest and the necessity for long-term studies examining the food habits of Asiatic black bears.     

Conflict Bear Translocation: Investigating Population Genetics and Fate of Bear Translocation in Dachigam National Park,Jammu and Kashmir,India

The Asiatic black bear population in Dachigam landscape, Jammu and Kashmir is well recognized as one of the highest density bear populations in India. Increasing incidences of bear-human interactions and the resultant retaliatory killings by locals have become a serious threat to the survivorship of black bears in the Dachigam landscape. The Department of Wildlife Protection in Jammu and Kashmir has been translocating bears involved in conflicts, henceforth ‘conflict bears’ from different sites in Dachigam landscape to Dachigam National Park as a flagship activity to mitigate conflicts. We undertook this study to investigate the population genetics and the fate of bear translocation in Dachigam National Park. We identified 109 unique genotypes in an area of ca. 650 km² and observed bear population under panmixia that showed sound genetic variability. Molecular tracking of translocated bears revealed that mostly bears (7 out of 11 bears) returned to their capture sites, possibly due to homing instincts or habituation to the high quality food available in agricultural croplands and orchards, while only four bears remained in Dachigam National Park after translocation. Results indicated that translocation success was most likely to be season dependent as bears translocated during spring and late autumn returned to their capture sites, perhaps due to the scarcity of food inside Dachigam National Park while bears translocated in summer remained in Dachigam National Park due to availability of surplus food resources. Thus, the current management practices of translocating conflict bears, without taking into account spatio-temporal variability of food resources in Dachigam landscape seemed to be ineffective in mitigating conflicts on a long-term basis. However, the study highlighted the importance of molecular tracking of bears to understand their movement patterns and socio-biology in tough terrains like Dachigam landscape.     

Brown bear habitat selection in relation to anthropogenic structures in the Bieszczady Mountains,Poland

In Europe, brown bear Ursus arctos habitats frequently overlap with human settlements and infrastructure. We tested whether anthropogenic structures played an important role in habitat selection by brown bears in the Bieszczady Mountains, Poland. We analysed 668 signs of brown bear presence recorded during 6 counts along 246 km of transects (total 1,476 km) in spring, summer and autumn of 1993 and 1994. Habitat selection of bears was more related to habitat and altitude than to human factors. Avoidance of roads, settlements and forest clearings influenced habitat selection by brown bears in spring but less in summer and autumn.     

Successional dynamics of the phytoplankton in the lower part of the river Ebro

The temporal and spatial dynamics of phytoplankton have beenstudied in four sites located along the last 60 km of the riverEbro, over a period of 1 year. Diatoms and green algae werethe most abundant groups; blue-green algae were frequent onlyin autumn. Asterionella formosa dominated the winter phytoplanktonassemblages. In autumn, spring and early summer centric diatomswere dominant: Aulacoseira granulata (Ehr.) Simonsen in autunm;Cyclotella sp. p1., Skeletonema potamos (Weber) Hasle and StephanodisciLssp. p1. in spring. A great abundance of green algae was observedduring the summer, mainly in the lower sites. In the sites closerto the mouth, the spring maximum of centric diatoms extendedto the summer. Mainly in the downstream sites, a remarkablegrowth of Acrinocyclus normanii f. subsalsa (Juhl.-Daunf.) Hustedtand Stephanodiscus hantzschii f tenuis (Hust.) Hak. & Stoerm.was added to green algae in the late summer. As has been investigatedthrough a principal component analysis, the phytoplankton temporalsuccession and longitudinal differences between the sites maybe affected by the variations in flow and the increase of waterconductivity downstream; both factors seem to act together.The river is rather homogeneous with respect to the phytoplanktonassemblages during the winter and spring months, and from latespring to the following autumn, differences greatly increaseboth in time and downstream.     

广东罗坑自然保护区鳄蜥生境选择的季节性差异

2006年3-10月,在广东省罗坑鳄蜥自然保护区利用直接观察法对鳄蜥春、夏、秋3季的生境选择进行研究。春、夏、秋3季各测定了31、71、31个有鳄蜥样方以及50、90、51个对照样方的14种生态因子。利用生态因子对比分析和逐步判别分析确定各季节生境选择的主要影响因素。结果表明,春季影响鳄蜥生境选择的主要影响因素是溪沟底质中沙的含量和植被盖度,正确判别率为97.5%;夏季影响鳄蜥生境选择的主要影响因素是溪沟底质中沙的含量、植被盖度、溪流宽度和枯枝百分比,正确判别率为94.4%;秋季影响鳄蜥生境选择的主要影响因素是溪沟底质中沙的含量、植被盖度和可利用食物量,正确判别率为97.6%。在区分春、夏、秋3季鳄蜥生境选择方面有一系列生态因子发挥作用,依照贡献值的大小依次为可利用食物量、干扰距离、枯枝百分比、溪水流速、溪沟坡度和溪宽等6个因子,由这6个变量构成的方程对春、夏、秋3季鳄蜥生境的正确区分率达到76.7%。判别函数的分析表明,春、夏、秋3季鳄蜥的生境选择具有较高的差异性,以判别函数建立的判别分类图表明,春、夏季以及夏、秋季鳄蜥的生境选择重叠较多,而秋季与春季的重叠较少。     

Comparative analyses on food habits of Japanese marten,Siberian weasel and leopard cat in the Tsushima islands,Japan

Food habits of three sympatric carnivore mammals in the Tsushima islands of Japan were studied during 1986–91. Scats of the Tsushima marten (n=1236), the Siberian weasel (n=218) and the Tsushima leopard cat (n=350) were collected monthly and the food items were determined by scat contents analysis. Marten was omnivorous showing a high level of diversity of food throughout the year. The important foods for marten were fruits and berries from spring to autumn, insects in summer and autumn and small mammals all year round. Leopard cat preferred to hunt wood/mice and birds, and remained a flesh meat specialist throughout the year. Weasel was intermediate between marten and leopard cat, but was slightly biased towards the flesh meat eater. The three carnivores do not compete against one another for food, except for small rodents. A conflict for food between leopard cat and weasel was suggested to be more intense than that of other combinations based on diet overlapping. Marten may be characterized as an opportunistic generalist. When interspecific competitors existed, or human disturbance to the habitat occurred, the preferential flexibility of the marten to alternative food resources might become more advantageous than the other two species.     

石家庄市空气花粉散布规律及与气候因子的关系

石家庄市2007—2009连续两年空气花粉分析表明:受植物花期影响,春季以木本植物花粉为主,夏、秋季以草本植物花粉为主,不同类型花粉通量存在一定年际差异。松属、杨属、胡桃属等当地花粉含量占花粉组合的80.0%以上,桦木属、栎属、虎榛子属等区域花粉含量低于20.0%,显示空气花粉能较好地反映周围植被,但也受区域植被的影响。依据空气花粉通量变化规律,石家庄市主要空气花粉类型通量从高到低排在前5位的依次为:胡桃属、悬铃木属、蒿属、杨属、藜科,均为高致敏类型,花粉过敏症患者在其花期或通量较高时期应早作防范。空气花粉百分含量与气候因子之间的(CCA)分析结果显示,其主要受风速与水汽压影响;不同季节主要花粉类型通量与气候因子的相关分析表明:春季和秋季空气花粉通量主要受气温和水汽压的影响,夏季主要受相对湿度和水汽压的影响,冬季与气候因子相关较弱。     

Survival of white-tailed deer fawns on Marine Corps Base Quantico

Some jurisdictions in the eastern United States have reduced harvest of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) because of perceived declines in recruitment and population size over the last decade. Although the restoration of American black bears (Ursus americanus) and the colonization of coyotes (Canis latrans) have increased fawn predation in some areas, limited information exists on how temporally dynamic resources and weather influence fawn survival. Therefore, we evaluated fawn survival probability, cause specific mortality, and if factors such as oak (Quercus spp.) mast abundance, winter severity, precipitation, and landscape composition influenced mortality risk on Marine Corps Base Quantico in northern Virginia, USA, from 2008 to 2019. We tracked 248 fawns outfitted with very high frequency radio-collars and predation was the leading cause of mortality (n = 42; 45%). We estimated survival to 133 days and survival pooling all years (2008–2019) was 0.50 (95% CI = 0.42–0.60). Increased annual red oak (Quercus spp.) mast abundance from the previous fall reduced mortality hazard for fawns. The longevity of our study revealed a link between fawn survival and a specific maternal resource (red oak mast) only available during gestation. Our results highlight the importance of oak mast in eastern deciduous forests and, more broadly, overwinter maternal condition on white-tailed deer recruitment.     

Food habits and habitat selection of suburban badgers (Meles meles) in Japan

A study of the Japanese badger Meles meles anakuma was undertaken in Hinode, a suburb of Tokyo, between 1992 and 1998. Faecal analysis, based on 82 samples, revealed that during spring and summer, earthworms ( Megaseolocidae spp.) occurred at high frequency in the diet, with berries ( Rubus spp.), beetles and persimmon Dymopyrus kaki also eaten during summer months. Scavenged food was eaten in early spring when earthworm availability was low, and badgers switched from worms when persimmon became abundant in autumn. Twenty-one Japanese badgers (14 males and seven females) were radio-tracked. Adult badger home ranges were stable, and those of males [40±19 ( sd ) ha, n =7] were larger than those of females [11±6 ( sd ) ha, n =4]. Badger resting sites in each home range were located within 630 m of each other and categorized as setts or couches. Setts were sited within core areas (30% adaptive kernel method) of home ranges. Most setts were on a sub-ridge and avoided west-facing slopes. Couches, mainly in deciduous forest and forest edge, were generally sited towards the periphery of home ranges. Most badger foods were distributed along ecotones between forestry plantations and farmland; earthworms, their main food from late spring to summer, and berry thickets were both concentrated at the edge of conifer plantations. Persimmon trees, the main food source for badgers in autumn, were also found in agricultural land bordering forest edge. Badger home range size was related to forest edge density.     

Seasonal patterns of food storing in the Jay Garrulus glandarius

This study investigated seasonal patterns in food consumption and food storage in six captive Jays Garrulus glandarius. In the first experiment, seasonal changes in food-storing intensity were tested by presenting acorns (oak seeds, Quercus spp.) in spring, summer and autumn. There were no significant differences between the seasons in the amount of food eaten. However, significantly more food was taken and stored in the autumn than in the spring and summer months. In the spring and summer, the acorns were stored between the doorframes, on the ledges of the aviaries and under the bark of branches. In the autumn, Jays also began to hoard underneath the plastic sheeting covering the hard-board flooring by ripping the polythene to create a hidden cache site. The length of time over which the stored food was left before retrieval increased from summer to autumn. Food storing also occurred in spring and summer but was short term. The second experiment tested whether or not there were seasonal changes in food preference by presenting birds with acorns, peanuts and mealworms in the summer and autumn. More peanuts were eaten, taken and stored in the autumn than in the summer, and, as in the first experiment, significantly more acorns were taken and stored in the autumn. In the autumn, only a few mealworms were eaten before the birds stored acorns and peanuts, whereas in the summer, birds tended to eat most of the mealworms before they began to store. As in the first experiment, items tended to be buried in the ground in the autumn and left for longer periods before retrieval. These results are discussed in relation to the demand that each food type places on the Jay's time.     

圈养马来熊行为节律和时间分配的季节变化

2009年3－12月,分春、夏、秋、冬4个季节,采用人工观察和红外摄像记录观察2种方式,对上海动物园的圈养马来熊进行行为学研究。建立的行为谱包括休息、走动、踱步、乞食、采食、爬树、探寻、擦痒、玩耍、追逐、嗅闻、示警、打斗、爬跨、舔阴、交配和排泄,将相关行为合并后归纳成6类,即休息、运动、乞食、刻板、社群和其他行为。马来熊用于休息的时间最多,其次是运动和乞食行为。各行为具有不同程度的季节性差异,运动行为（F=62.748,P<0.001）和社群行为（F=26.041,P<0.001）季节性差异极显著,刻板行为（F=4.667,P<0.05）差异显著,休息行为（F=1.857,P>0.05）和乞食行为（F=1.180,P>0.05）差异不显著。圈养马来熊具有明显的日活动节律,00:00－5:00和20:00－24:00是马来熊的休息高峰,6:00开始活动量增大,8:00－9:00是马来熊的正常进食高峰,同时,运动、乞食、社群等行为逐渐增多,乞食行为集中在运动场10:00－15:00游客多的时段。18:00之后运动逐渐减少,进入休息状态。春夏昼间行为比较,运动和刻板行为（P<0.05）差异显著。年龄因素,春季对休息、运动和刻板行为影响特别显著（P<0.001）,社群和乞食行为的影响显著（P<0.05）,夏季对乞食行为影响特别显著（P<0.001）,运动、刻板和社群行为影响显著（P<0.05）。性别因素,春季对社群行为影响极显著（P<0.001）,休息、乞食和其他行为影响显著（P<0.05）,夏季只对社群行为影响显著（P<0.05）。秋冬间各行为差异不显著,室内和运动场的行为对比表明,刻板和休息多在室内,运动行为多在运动场,室内和运动场秋季的运动行为和社群行为差异显著（P<0.05）,冬季的刻板行为差异极显著（P<0.001）。     

Environment and food of the budgerigar Melopsittacus undulatus

Budgerigars range and breed over most of the interior of Australia. During a year, budgerigars may experience a maximal change in day length of about 5 h, and temperatures range from well below to above their zone of thermo-neutrality. In the north of the budgerigar's range there is growth of pastures in summer and autumn and in the south there is growth in spring and early summer. In the arid interior, growth is irregular from year-to-year and varies from site-to-site. However, in northern arid regions growth tends to occur in summer and autumn; in southern arid regions in spring and early summer; and over most of the arid regions in most years there is some growth in run-on areas. In inland mid-eastern Australia budgerigars ate only seeds of ground vegetation. These seeds were from about 0.5 to 2.5 mm in length, weighed between about 0.3 and 1.3 mg and had an energy content of about 18.9 kJ g^-1. Ata site on Mitchell grass plains Astrebla spp. were the main seeds eaten. At a site further inland the diet was more diverse: in the hot months of 1973–74 they ate mainly Boerhavia diffusa, Atriplex spp. and Astrebla pectinata, during the cold months of 1974 mainly Iseilema and an unidentified seed, and in spring 1974 mainly Atriplex spp. There was no evidence of special dietary requirements for breeding; in particular no requirements of soft, unripened seed or insect food to feed young. Males and females, adults and juveniles, and individuals in the same flock had similar diets. Information from the literature and my data suggest there is considerable stability and seasonal regularity in the budgerigar's food supply.     

Does Supplemental Feed Increase Selective Foraging in a Browsing Ungulate?

ABSTRACT Provision of supplemental feed to large herbivores is a common management practice that may motivate selective foraging, thereby influencing plant community composition. Our objective was to assess the effect of a high-quality supplement on diet composition and nutritional quality for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). We permanently released hand-reared deer into 4 81-ha enclosures; in 2 enclosures we provided a pelleted supplement. We conducted bite-count studies seasonally to assess diet composition and quality. Supplemented deer reduced mast (fruits and pods of woody plants and cacti) in their diets (P < 0.019) during spring and autumn compared to unsupplemented deer. Diets of deer in supplemented enclosures had 2 times greater proportion of browse during spring (P = 0.065) and 5 times greater proportion of forbs during autumn (P = 0.007). Quality of the forage portion of the diet did not vary by treatment during winter or summer. Metabolizable energy concentration was 13% greater (P = 0.054) in spring and digestible protein content was 3 times greater (P = 0.006) during autumn in diets of supplemented compared to unsupplemented deer. Our results support the selective foraging hypothesis during autumn but not during winter, spring, or summer. Furthermore, white-tailed deer did not reduce the proportion of their diet composed of browse, but did reduce consumption of mast. Supplemented deer continued to eat poor-quality, chemically defended forage, perhaps to alleviate ruminal acidosis induced by the supplement or because nutrients in the supplement increased the deer's ability to detoxify chemically defended browses. A decline in mast consumption by supplemented deer could influence plant communities, depending on the role of deer in seed dispersal and seed predation. Impacts of supplemental feed on selective foraging of white-tailed deer in shrub-dominated rangelands are more complex than suggested by previous research. Long-term studies of vegetation communities are needed before wildlife managers will be able to fully incorporate effects of supplemental feed into management decisions.     

Food habits and home range use of Japanese macaques on an island inhabited by deer

Food habits and home range use of a troop of Japanese macaque Macaca fuscata Blyth on Kinkazan Island (9.6km²), northern Japan, were studied from the spring of 2000 to the winter of 2002. The home range of this troop covers the area where vegetation is modified by foraging of sika deer Cervus nippon Temminck. The core areas of the home ranges of the macaque troop corresponded closely to the distributions of the staple food plants in every season. For example, leaves of Berberis thunbergii DC. and leaves of Zelkova serrata Makino in spring, berries of Berchemia racemosa Sieb. & Zucc. in summer, nuts of Zelkova serrata and Carpinus spp. in the fall of 2000 and winter of 2001, seeds of Torreya nucifera Sieb. & Zucc. in the fall of 2001, and bark of Zanthoxylum piperitum DC. in winter of 2002. Among the staple food plants, Berberis thunbergii and Zanthoxylum piperitum are more abundant on Kinkazan Island than other macaque habitats in northern Japan because they are spiny and unpalatable to sika deer, hence survive under the heavy foraging by the deer. Further, another staple food plant, Berchemia racemosa, a liana, grows abundantly at the edges of Illicium forests. Illicium anisatur is toxic and is not consumed by sika deer. Monkeys of this troop using the unique vegetation induced by sika deer grazing, fed on several plants which are not consumed by monkeys in other areas, and the home range was heavily affected by the distributions of these plants.