用于病毒研究的人源化小鼠研究进展简

人源化小鼠从起初的入-鼠嵌合体到目前具有人体免疫活性的模型不断演进,已用于人免疫缺陷病毒、EB病毒、丙型肝炎病毒和登革病毒等病原体的感染、发病机制和防治的研究,取得了很大进展。我们简要介绍几种有代表性的人源化小鼠模型及其在病毒研究中的应用。     

人源化鼠嵌合肝动物模型研究进展

动物模型是人类疾病研究、发病机制、药物研发的重要工具,对于困扰人类健康的肝脏疾病还没有理想的动物模型能有效地反映出人类疾病发病的机制。建立人源化鼠嵌合肝动物模型,对于研究人类肝脏疾病的发病机制、疫苗和药物的研发及疾病的诊治等方面都具有十分广阔的应用前景。     

人成体肝细胞在Fah-/-Nod/Scid小鼠肝脏中的显著增殖

利用人肝细胞异种移植到受体鼠肝内建立人源化肝脏的嵌合体小鼠(人鼠嵌合肝)对药物代谢、乙型肝炎病毒等嗜肝性病毒及其疫苗的研究具有重要意义. 研究表明, 利用Fah^-/-Rag2^-/-Il2rg^-/-三基因剔除小鼠可获得人肝细胞在小鼠肝脏中的显著再殖, 但较高的死亡率及纯合子不能用于繁殖, 制约着该小鼠模型的规模化应用. 本研究结合延胡索酰乙酰乙酸水解酶基因剔除(Fah^-/-)小鼠的肝脏再殖优势和Nod/Scid小鼠异种移植的特点, 将这两种小鼠进行杂交繁育建立Fah^-/-Nod/Scid小鼠品系, Fah^-/-Nod/Scid小鼠可以纯合保种并能正常繁殖. 采用提前停药的预处理方案, 结合FK506处理, 移植的人成体肝细胞能够实现在Fah^-/-Nod/Scid小鼠肝脏中的显著增殖, 肝脏再殖程度达到30%以上. 采用体重曲线、肝功能和人肝细胞功能蛋白表达等三方面指标评价嵌合肝脏中人肝细胞的功能, 结果表明再殖的肝细胞具有正常的人肝细胞功能. 这些结果表明, Fah^-/-Nod/Scid小鼠可以作为理想的可规模应用的人鼠嵌合肝模型, 该技术体系的改进简化了Fah^-/-小鼠作为人源化肝脏小鼠模型的实用性问题.     

治疗性单克隆抗体研究进展

杂交瘤技术使鼠源单克隆抗体（鼠单抗）被广泛用于人类疾病的诊断和研究,建立了治疗性抗体的第一个里程碑。但随后出现的人抗鼠抗体等副作用极大地限制了鼠单抗的临床应用。随着生物学技术的发展和抗体基因结构的阐明,应用DNA重组技术和抗体库技术对鼠单抗进行人源化改造,先后出现了嵌合抗体、改型抗体和全人抗体,同时也涌现了各种单抗衍生物,它们从不同角度克服了鼠单抗临床应用的不足,未人类疾病治疗带来新的曙光。我们就上述治疗性抗体人源化的研究进展做简要综述。     

人源化小鼠人源细胞检测方法

目的人源化小鼠在人类疾病与再生医学研究中具有广泛应用,为获得一种理想的人源化小鼠检测方法,研究人特异性线粒体序列扩增作为人源化动物模型中人类DNA检测方法的可行性。方法设计人线粒体DNA特异性引物,并用该引物对人脐血造血干细胞嵌合体小鼠进行了检测。结果在人源化动物模型的人类DNA检测中,这种人线粒体DNA的PCR检测方法能够达到理想的特异性与灵敏性,是一种理想的嵌合体小鼠检测方法。结论获得了一种理想的人源化小鼠人源细胞检测方法。     

腓骨肌萎缩症2型(CMT2)小鼠模型的研究进展

腓骨肌萎缩症(Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, CMT)是人类最常见的遗传性运动和感觉神经疾病之一, 全球群体发病率约为1/2500。CMT主要分为脱髓鞘型(包括CMT1, CMT3, CMT4和CMTX1)和轴索型(CMT2)。迄今为止, 先后已有17个CMT2的致病基因被定位和克隆, 然而对这些基因的致病机制所知甚少。建立CMT2小鼠模型是从动物水平研究突变基因致病机制的有效手段。目前已成功构建了近10种CMT2的转基因小鼠、基因敲除小鼠或基因敲入小鼠模型, 其中尤以带有人源致病基因的转基因小鼠模型为多。文章简要介绍了CMT2小鼠模型构建策略, 着重阐述了CMT2小鼠模型的研究进展, 并对个别小鼠模型进行了剖析。     

用于病毒研究的人源化小鼠研究进展

人源化小鼠从起初的人-鼠嵌合体到目前具有人体免疫活性的模型不断演进,已用于人免疫缺陷病毒、EB病毒、丙型肝炎病毒和登革病毒等病原体的感染、发病机制和防治的研究,取得了很大进展。我们简要介绍几种有代表性的人源化小鼠模型及其在病毒研究中的应用。     

产生人抗体的转染色体动物研究进展

现已证明,应用抗体治疗疾病是一种非常成功的方法。单克隆抗体的生产使免疫治疗达到一个新水平,但鼠源单抗在治疗人体疾病方面有很多问题,而人源化抗体可以解决这些问题。目前抗体人源化已由鼠嵌合抗体发展到了转基因动物表达完全人抗体阶段,而人类人工染色体(HAC)载体的发展和微细胞介导的转染色体技术使得产生携带人类免疫球蛋白基因位点的转染色体动物成为可能。通过HAC将人的免疫球蛋白基因转入后,这类转染色体动物可以产生大量人源化多克隆抗体,这对预防及治疗疾病,甚至防御生物武器都有很重要的作用。转染色体技术可以使动物携带大而复杂的人类基因或基因簇,这些转基因动物有助于研究人类基因组在体内的功能作用,并用于各种疾病研究和生产药物蛋白。     

小鼠动物实验方法系列专题(三) 三硝基苯磺酸诱导的C57/BL6小鼠结肠炎模型的建立方法

2,4,6-三硝基苯磺酸(TNBS)诱导的小鼠结肠炎模型是研究人类炎性肠病(inflammatory bowl disease,IBD)的主要手段之一,但在实际应用中,常用的C57/BL品系小鼠却对TNBS有较高耐受性,不易建模。本文主要介绍一种可以有效诱导C57/BL6小鼠TNBS结肠炎的方法,并对疾病评价指标进行了具体的描述。对基因工程小鼠IBD模型的研究具有重要意义。     

利用人脐带血干细胞制备人鼠肝组织嵌合体模型

目的利用人脐带血干细胞研究制备HBV感染人鼠嵌合小鼠模型。方法将人脐血干细胞,经尾静脉分两次注射到裸鼠体内。分别于第7,14,21天取肝组织,进行AFP免疫组织化学检测,分析人肝细胞在裸鼠体内嵌合生长情况,并进行乙肝病毒感染实验,定量检测感染后小鼠血清中AFP、ALB。结果实验组小鼠在第7、14、21天肝脏内AFP持续阳性表达,AFP表达于细胞质内。HBV感染后小鼠肝脏HBsAg组化显示密集成片的阳性细胞。实验组和对照组表达差异显著（P〈0.05）。结论将人脐血干细胞移植裸鼠肝脏内可以存活并分化成人肝细胞形成嵌合鼠,并能被HBV感染。     

Mouse models with human immunity and their application in biomedical research

Biomedical research in human beings is largely restricted to in vitro studies that lack complexity of a living organism. To overcome this limitation, humanized mouse models are developed based on immunodeficient characteristics of severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) or recombination activating gene (Rag)^null mice, which can accept xenografts. Peripheral constitution of human immunity in SCID or Rag^null mice has been achieved by transplantation of mature human immune cells, foetal human thymus, bone marrow, liver tissues, lymph nodes or a combination of these, although efficiency needs to be improved. These mouse models with constituted human immunity (defined as humanized mice in the present text) have been widely used to investigate the basic principles of human immunobiology as well as complex pathomechanisms and potential therapies of human diseases. Here, elements of an ideal humanized mouse model are highlighted including genetic and non-genetic modification of recipient mice, transplantation strategies and proposals to improve engraftments. The applications of the humanized mice to study the development and response of human immune cells, human autoimmune diseases, virus infections, transplantation biology and tumour biology are reviewed as well.     

Liver development and regeneration: from laboratory study to clinical therapy

The liver has an unusual capacity to regenerate after a loss of mass and function caused by surgical resection or toxic liver injury. Over the last 10 years there have been major advances in our understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying liver development and regeneration. The numerous factors crucial to these phenomena have been identified mainly by using knockout mice. Forward-genetics studies using zebrafish and medaka have also generated many mutants with liver disorders or defects in liver formation. Our goal is to translate knowledge gained from laboratory work and animal models into novel therapies for human liver diseases. Exciting progress has been achieved using human partial liver transplantation and autologous cell therapy.     

Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ABCG2) is expressed by progenitor cells/reactive ductules and hepatocytes and its expression pattern is influenced by disease etiology and species type: possible functional consequences.

Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ABCG2) is an ATP-binding cassette transport protein that is expressed in several organs including the liver. Previous studies have shown that ABC transport proteins play an important pathophysiological role in several liver diseases. However, to date, expression pattern and possible role of BCRP in human liver diseases and animal models have not been studied in detail. Here we investigated the expression pattern of BCRP in normal liver, chronic parenchymal and biliary human liver diseases, and parallel in different rat models of liver diseases. Expression was studied by immunohistochemistry and additionally by RT-PCR analysis in Thy-1-positive rat oval cells. Bile ducts, hepatic progenitor cells, reactive bile ductules, and blood vessel endothelium were immunoreactive for BCRP in normal liver and all types of human liver diseases and in rat models. BCRP was expressed by the canalicular membrane of hepatocytes in normal and diseased human liver, but never in rat liver. Remarkably, there was also expression of BCRP at the basolateral pole of human hepatocytes, and this was most pronounced in chronic biliary diseases. In conclusion, BCRP positivity in the progenitor cells/reactive ductules could contribute to the resistance of these cells to cytotoxic agents and xenotoxins. Basolateral hepatocytic expression in chronic biliary diseases may be an adaptive mechanism to pump bile constituents back into the sinusoidal blood. Strong differences between human and rat liver must be taken into account in future studies with animal models.     

Mice are not Men and yet… how humanized mice inform us about human infectious diseases

The study of human pathologies is often limited by the absence of animal models which are robust, cost-effective and reproduce the hallmarks of human infections. While mice have been frequently employed to study human diseases, many of important pathogens display unique human tropism. These last two decades the graft of human progenitor cells or tissues into -immunodeficient mice has allowed the elaboration of so called humanized mice. Humanized mouse technology has made rapid progress, and it is now possible to achieve high levels of human chimerism in various organs and tissues, particularly the immune system and the liver. The review briefly summarizes the different models of humanized mice available for in vivo experiments. With a focus on lymphotropic, monocytotropic and hepatotropic viruses, we here discuss the current status and future prospects of these models for studying the pathogenesis of infectious diseases. Furthermore, they provide a powerful tool for the development of innovative therapies.     

Therapeutic potential of hepatocyte transplantation

Liver repopulation with transplanted cells offers unique opportunities for treating a variety of diseases and for studies of fundamental mechanisms in cell biology. Our understanding of the basis of liver repopulation has come from studies of transplanted cells in animal models. A variety of studies established that transplanted hepatocytes as well as stem/progenitor cells survive, engraft, and function in the liver. Transplanted cells survive life-long, although cells do not proliferate in the normal liver. On the other hand, the liver is repopulated extensively when diseases or other injuries afflict native hepatocytes but spare transplanted cells. The identification of ways to repopulate the liver with transplanted cells has greatly reinvigorated the field of liver cell therapy. The confluence of insights in stem/progenitor cells, transplantation immunology, cryobiology, and liver repopulation in specific models of human diseases indicates that the field of liver cell therapy will begin to reap the promised fruit in the near future.     

Hepatitis B Virus Infection and Immunopathogenesis in a Humanized Mouse Model: Induction of Human-Specific Liver Fibrosis and M2-Like Macrophages

The mechanisms of chronic HBV infection and immunopathogenesis are poorly understood due to a lack of a robust small animal model. Here we report the development of a humanized mouse model with both human immune system and human liver cells by reconstituting the immunodeficient A2/NSG (NOD.Cg-Prkdc^scid Il2rg^tm1Wjl/SzJ mice with human HLA-A2 transgene) with human hematopoietic stem cells and liver progenitor cells (A2/NSG-hu HSC/Hep mice). The A2/NSG-hu HSC/Hep mouse supported HBV infection and approximately 75% of HBV infected mice established persistent infection for at least 4 months. We detected human immune responses, albeit impaired in the liver, chronic liver inflammation and liver fibrosis in infected animals. An HBV neutralizing antibody efficiently inhibited HBV infection and associated liver diseases in humanized mice. In addition, we found that the HBV mediated liver disease was associated with high level of infiltrated human macrophages with M2-like activation phenotype. Importantly, similar M2-like macrophage accumulation was confirmed in chronic hepatitis B patients with liver diseases. Furthermore, gene expression analysis showed that induction of M2-like macrophage in the liver is associated with accelerated liver fibrosis and necrosis in patients with acute HBV-induced liver failure. Lastly, we demonstrate that HBV promotes M2-like activation in both M1 and M2 macrophages in cell culture studies. Our study demonstrates that the A2/NSG-hu HSC/Hep mouse model is valuable in studying HBV infection, human immune responses and associated liver diseases. Furthermore, results from this study suggest a critical role for macrophage polarization in hepatitis B virus-induced immune impairment and liver pathology.     

Animal models of psychiatric disease

Animal models of psychiatric diseases are useful tools for screening new drugs and for investigating the mechanisms of those disorders. Despite the difficulties inherent in modelling human psychiatric phenotypes in animals, there has been recent success identifying mutations in mice that give rise to some of the characteristic features of anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, autism, obsessive-compulsive disorder and bipolar disorder. In some cases these models have the additional strength that drugs used to treat the human condition alleviate the symptoms in mice. Robust genetic evidence of the involvement of multiple susceptibility genes in psychiatric disease will enable future studies to move from single-gene models to models with multiple modified loci, with the promise of better representing the complexity of the human diseases.     

Carboxylesterases in lipid metabolism: from mouse to human

Mammalian carboxylesterases hydrolyze a wide range of xenobiotic and endogenous compounds, including lipid esters. Physiological functions of carboxylesterases in lipid metabolism and energy homeostasis in vivo have been demonstrated by genetic manipulations and chemical inhibition in mice, and in vitro through (over)expression, knockdown of expression, and chemical inhibition in a variety of cells. Recent research advances have revealed the relevance of carboxylesterases to metabolic diseases such as obesity and fatty liver disease, suggesting these enzymes might be potential targets for treatment of metabolic disorders. In order to translate pre-clinical studies in cellular and mouse models to humans, differences and similarities of carboxylesterases between mice and human need to be elucidated. This review presents and discusses the research progress in structure and function of mouse and human carboxylesterases, and the role of these enzymes in lipid metabolism and metabolic disorders.