β淀粉样肽在阿尔茨海默症发病中的分子机制

作为老年性痴呆的主要类型,阿尔茨海默症(AD)的病理特征包括大脑局部,尤其是海马和皮层神经元退行性变化,细胞内神经原纤维缠结和细胞外老年斑沉淀,其中老年斑的主要毒性成分为β-淀粉样肽(Aβ).随着对AD研究的深入,关于疾病发生的Aβ假说得到了深入的发展,越来越多的证据显示Aβ可能是AD发生的原发性病理因子.Aβ假说认为,AD是一种由于基因缺陷直接或间接改变淀粉样前蛋白(APP)表达或蛋白酶解过程,从而影响Aβ聚集稳定性的病理综合征,Aβ产生和清除之间的平衡逐渐改变,聚集态的Aβ累积引发连串的复杂反应,包括突触/突起的变化,Tau蛋白磷酸化,递质丢失,神经胶质增生和炎症反应等,最终出现神经元功能失调,死亡,斑块形成,神经原纤维缠积等病理现象.但Aβ究竟是通过什么样的分子途径引发AD的,Aβ作用的部位在哪里,Aβ毒性与其聚集状态的关系等等问题都还未能完全揭示.结合近年来实验室的研究结果和体会,综述了Aβ最新的研究进展.     

基于淀粉样蛋白级联假说的阿尔茨海默症防治研究进展

阿尔茨海默症（Alzheimer＇s Disease,AD）是一种中枢神经系统退行性病变,目前发病机制不清。淀粉样蛋白级联假说是有关AD发病机制的主流学说,认为脑内过量产生的β-淀粉样蛋白（β-amyloid peptide,Aβ）是引发AD的主要原因。针对Aβ的生成、聚集、清除及靶向治疗相关的药物开发是目前的研究热点,就淀粉样蛋白级联假说的最新研究进展及AD的预防治疗现状作一综述。     

阿尔茨海默病中的β-淀粉样蛋白和Tau蛋白

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)是与年龄相关的神经退行性疾病。记忆障碍通常是AD最早期和最明显的特征。β-淀粉样蛋白(amyloid-β,Aβ)沉淀(老年斑)、Tau蛋白引起的神经纤维缠结是AD的典型病理特征。许多研究证实两者之间存在着极为复杂的互为因果关系,共同造成神经元的损害。     

阿尔茨海默病与炎性调控

阿尔茨海默病 （AD） 是毁灭性的神经退行性损伤疾病,其特点是细胞外聚积β淀粉样蛋白（Aβ）形成淀粉样斑块和细胞内异常高度磷酸化 tau 蛋白导致神经纤维缠结(neurobrillary tangles）.基于上述特点提出的β淀粉样蛋白假说和tau的高度磷酸化假说,仍不能完全解释其发病机理和神经元的退行性损伤.目前,炎症小体在阿尔茨海默病的病理过程中引起的炎症和组织损伤引起高度关注.因此研究AD患者中炎症小体如何激活、组装、并诱发细胞炎性介质的高表达,可能对深入研究AD病理机制和治疗靶点的突破提供一种新的解释,本文主要针对这一研究领域的进展加以简要的概述介绍.     

老年痴呆症中神经递质释放异常的机理

阿尔茨海默症(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)是以胞外淀粉样蛋白(amyloid-β,Aβ)沉积和胞内神经纤维缠结为病理特征的神经退行性疾病。AD典型症状的出现与中枢神经系统突触数量的减少密切相关,因此,明确AD早期突触数量还没有明显降低时突触功能失调的机制对AD的临床诊治具有十分重要的意义。寡聚Aβ、早老素功能缺失等因素造成的突触前神经递质释放异常很有可能是AD突触功能异常的上游机制。对AD中神经递质释放异常的现象和机制进行综述,并对这一领域存在的开放问题作一归纳。     

不同聚集状态的Aβ寡聚体在阿尔茨海默病发生中的作用机制研究进展

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)是一种以智力损害和认知障碍为主要临床表现的神经退行性疾病.AD的发病因素和发病机制十分复杂,国际上对AD多年的研究提出几种假说,其中以β淀粉样蛋白(β-amyloid,Aβ)为AD主要致病因子的Aβ假说一直占据重要地位.Aβ可以分为单体、寡聚体和纤维状Aβ,其中寡聚体Aβ是导致AD中认知功能障碍和神经退变的主要因素.Aβ寡聚体又可以细分为不同的聚集状态,不同聚集状态的Aβ寡聚体在AD发生发展过程中起到的作用不同.本文主要综述几种不同聚集状态的寡聚体在AD发病中的作用及机制.     

星形胶质细胞参与阿尔茨海默病早期突触功能损伤的研究进展

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease, AD)是以β淀粉样蛋白(amyloidβ, Aβ)沉积和神经纤维缠结(neurofibrillary tangles, NFTs)等病理特征及记忆衰退等临床特征为标志的一种神经退行性疾病。AD的主要症状认知障碍与突触减少密切相关。可溶性寡聚Aβ引起的突触功能损伤是AD早期病理机制研究的热点。星形胶质细胞对突触功能调控起重要作用,其功能改变与AD病理表现密切相关。星形胶质细胞可以通过参与Aβ代谢、中枢炎性反应、突触调控和胞内钙信号传递等途径参与AD早期的突触功能损伤。该文对近年来星形胶质细胞在AD早期突触功能损伤中的主要作用及机制进行综述,同时对这一领域的开放问题进行了归纳。     

乙酰胆碱酯酶(AChE)与β淀粉样肽(Aβ)的相互关系

老年性痴呆症(Alzheimer‘s Disease,AD)是一种慢性的、进行性的神经系统退行性疾病。主要特征为各方面智力的损伤,包括学习记忆、语言、读写、行为,以及对周围环境的识别,最终可导致死亡。它有三大病理特征：(1)主要由β淀粉样肽(β—amyloid peptide,Aβ)沉积而成的淀粉样斑;(2)由高度磷酸化的Tau蛋白组成的神经纤维缠结;(3)神经元及神经突触的丢失。在AD疾病的发病机制及治疗的对策中,AD和乙酰胆碱酯酶(acetylcholinesterase,AChE)都有重要的作用。近年来对Aβ和AChE在AD疾病发生发展过程中相互作用的研究有了越来越多的报道。在此,作者对Aβ和AChE的关系作一综述。     

雌激素对淀粉样β蛋白代谢的调节和毒性缓解

以淀粉样β蛋白为主的老年斑胞外沉积和神经元内神经原纤维缠结,是阿尔采末病(AD)特征性的病理学改变。近来,人们逐渐认可淀粉样蛋白假说,即认为淀粉样蛋白沉积是AD最初起因。研究人员正在寻找针对淀粉样β蛋白沉积的药物,雌激素是其中之一。初步的工作证明,雌激素能够调节淀粉样β蛋白前体代谢,减少淀粉样β蛋白生成,也能够减轻淀粉样B蛋白引起的免疫炎症反应、氧应激对细胞造成的损伤,和对抗细胞凋亡。     

β-淀粉样前体蛋白裂解途径及截断型β-淀粉样蛋白对阿尔茨海默病的影响

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer disease’s, AD)是以老年斑(senile plaques, SPs)、神经原纤维缠结(neurofibrillary tangles, NFTs)等为主要病理特征的神经退行性疾病。β-淀粉样蛋白(β-amyloid protein, Aβ)在神经元胞外聚集形成老年斑,是引起AD的关键因素。过量Aβ的产生来源于β-淀粉样前体蛋白(β-amyloid precursor protein, APP)裂解途径的异常。因此,探究APP在AD的发病过程中裂解途径及Aβ的产生机制具有重要意义。目前,很多药物研究以减少和清除老年斑为目的,但是老年斑的形成是由全长Aβ和多种截断型Aβ共同作用的结果,并且其对SPs形成的影响作用机制尚未完全明确。本文就APP裂解途径及截断型Aβ的产生机制进行综述,以期为AD的研究提供理论依据。     

Alzheimer's disease: an intracellular movement disorder?

Axonal transport is essential for maintaining the structure and function of nerve cells. Deficient axonal transport has been implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). In addition to a disturbed cytoskeleton and other abnormalities observed in AD that are suggestive of axonal transport deficits, several AD-related proteins are implicated in the regulation of axonal transport. A recent study has demonstrated that the axonal transport deficit occurs early in the course of AD, preceding amyloid pathology substantially in mouse models of AD; more importantly, the study showed that reduced axonal transport leads to increased amyloid beta production and deposition. These data place axonal transport deficits at a central point in the pathogenesis of AD.     

Disruption of neurogenesis by amyloid beta-peptide,and perturbed neural progenitor cell homeostasis,in models of Alzheimer's disease

Neurogenesis occurs in the adult mammalian brain and may play roles in learning and memory processes and recovery from injury, suggesting that abnormalities in neural progenitor cells (NPC) might contribute to the pathogenesis of disorders of learning and memory in humans. The objectives of this study were to determine whether NPC proliferation, survival and neuronal differentiation are impaired in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and to determine the effects of the pathogenic form of amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta) on the survival and neuronal differentiation of cultured NPC. The proliferation and survival of NPC in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus was reduced in mice transgenic for a mutated form of amyloid precursor protein that causes early onset familial AD. Abeta impaired the proliferation and neuronal differentiation of cultured human and rodent NPC, and promoted apoptosis of neuron-restricted NPC by a mechanism involving dysregulation of cellular calcium homeostasis and the activation of calpains and caspases. Adverse effects of Abeta on NPC may contribute to the depletion of neurons and cognitive impairment in AD.     

Redox proteomics identification of oxidatively modified proteins in Alzheimer's disease brain and in vivo and in vitro models of AD centered around Abeta(1-42)

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease associated with loss of memory and cognition. One hallmark of AD is the accumulation of amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta), which invokes a cascade of oxidative damage to neurons that can eventually result in neuronal death. Several markers of oxidative stress have been identified in AD brain, thus providing greater understanding into potential mechanisms involved in the disease pathogenesis and progression. In the present article, we review the application of redox proteomics to the identification of oxidized proteins in AD brain and also our recent findings on amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta)-associated in vivo and in vitro models of AD. Our redox proteomics approach has made possible the identification of specifically oxidized proteins in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain, providing for the first time evidence on how oxidative stress plays a crucial role in AD-related neurodegeneration. The information obtained has great potential to aid in determining the molecular pathogenesis in and detecting disease markers of AD, as well as identifying potential targets for drug therapy in AD. Application of redox proteomics to study cellular events, especially related to disease dysfunction, may provide an efficient tool to understand the main mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis and progression of oxidative stress-related neurodegenerative disorders.     

RAGE: a potential target for Abeta-mediated cellular perturbation in Alzheimer's disease

This review focuses on the current findings regarding interaction between amyloid beta peptide (Abeta) and receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (RAGE) and its roles in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). As a ubiquitously expressed cell surface receptor, RAGE mediates the effects of Abeta on microglia, blood-brain barrier (BBB) and neurons through activating different signaling pathways. Data from autopsy brain tissues, in vitro cell cultures and transgenic mouse models suggest that Abeta-RAGE interaction exaggerates neuronal stress, accumulation of Abeta, impaired learning memory, and neuroinflammation. Blockade of RAGE protects against Abeta-mediated cellular perturbation. These findings may have an important therapeutic implication for neurodegenerative disorders relevant to AD.     

Mitochondria as a primary target for vascular hypoperfusion and oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease

It has been widely accepted that vascular hypoperfusion induces oxidative stress and the outcome of this misbalance is brain energy failure. This abnormality leads to neuronal death which manifests as cognitive impairment and the development of brain pathology as in Alzheimer's disease (AD). It has been demonstrated that the AD brain is characterized by impairments in energy metabolism. We theorize that hypoperfusion induced mitochondrial failure plays a key role in the generation of reactive oxygen species, resulting in oxidative damage to brain cellular compartments, especially in the vascular endothelium and in selective population of neurons with high metabolic activity in the AD brain. All of these abnormalities have been found to occur before classic AD pathology inducing neuronal degeneration and amyloid deposition during the progression of AD. Therefore, expanding investigations into both the mechanisms behind amyloid beta (Abeta) deposition and the possible accelerating effects of environmental factors such as chronic hypoxia/reperfusion may open a new avenue for effective treatments of AD. Future studies examining the importance of mitochondrial pathobiology in brain cellular compartments provide insight not only into the better understanding of the neurodegenerative and/or cerebrovascular disease but also provide targets for treating these conditions.     

Neuronal localization of the TNFalpha converting enzyme (TACE) in brain tissue and its correlation to amyloid plaques

The tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha converting enzyme (TACE) can cleave the cell-surface ectodomain of the amyloid-beta precursor protein (APP), thus decreasing the generation of amyloid-beta (Abeta) by cultured non-neuronal cells. While the amyloidogenic processing of APP in neurons is linked to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), the expression of TACE in neurons has not yet been examined. Thus, we assessed TACE expression in a series of neuronal and non-neuronal cell types by Western blots. We found that TACE was present in neurons and was only faintly detectable in lysates of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglial cells. Immunohistochemical analysis was used to determine the cellular localization of TACE in the human brain, and its expression was detected in distinct neuronal populations, including pyramidal neurons of the cerebral cortex and granular cell layer neurons in the hippocampus. Very low levels of TACE were seen in the cerebellum, with Purkinje cells at the granular-molecular boundary staining faintly. Because TACE was localized predominantly in areas of the brain that are affected by amyloid plaques in AD, we examined its expression in a series of AD brains. We found that AD and control brains showed similar levels of TACE staining, as well as similar patterns of TACE expression. By double labeling for Abeta plaques and TACE, we found that TACE-positive neurons often colocalized with amyloid plaques in AD brains. These observations support a neuronal role for TACE and suggest a mechanism for its involvement in AD pathogenesis as an antagonist of Abeta formation.     

Lipid homeostasis and apolipoprotein E in the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease

Extracellular amyloid plaques, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles, and loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in the brains of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients may be the end result of abnormalities in lipid metabolism and peroxidation that may be caused, or exacerbated, by beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta). Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is a major apolipoprotein in the brain, mediating the transport and clearance of lipids and Abeta. ApoE-dependent dendritic and synaptic regeneration may be less efficient with apoE4, and this may result in, or unmask, age-related neurodegenerative changes. The increased risk of AD associated with apoE4 may be modulated by diet, vascular risk factors, and genetic polymorphisms that affect the function of other transporter proteins and enzymes involved in brain lipid homeostasis. Diet and apoE lipoproteins influence membrane lipid raft composition and the properties of enzymes, transporter proteins, and receptors mediating Abeta production and degradation, tau phosphorylation, glutamate and glucose uptake, and neuronal signal transduction. The level and isoform of apoE may influence whether Abeta is likely to be metabolized or deposited. This review examines the current evidence for diet, lipid homeostasis, and apoE in the pathogenesis of AD. Effects on the cholinergic system and response to cholinesterase inhibitors by APOE allele carrier status are discussed briefly.     

Role of ganglioside metabolism in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease--a review

Gangliosides are expressed in the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane of the cells of all vertebrates and are particularly abundant in the nervous system. Ganglioside metabolism is closely associated with the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD, the most common form of dementia, is a progressive degenerative disease of the brain characterized clinically by progressive loss of memory and cognitive function and eventually death. Neuropathologically, AD is characterized by amyloid deposits or "senile plaques," which consist mainly of aggregated variants of amyloid beta-protein (Abeta). Abeta undergoes a conformational transition from random coil to ordered structure rich in beta-sheets, especially after addition of lipid vesicles containing GM1 ganglioside. In AD brain, a complex of GM1 and Abeta, termed "GAbeta," has been found to accumulate. In recent years, Abeta and GM1 have been identified in microdomains or lipid rafts. The functional roles of these microdomains in cellular processes are now beginning to unfold. Several articles also have documented the involvement of these microdomains in the pathogenesis of certain neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD. A pivotal neuroprotective role of gangliosides has been reported in in vivo and in vitro models of neuronal injury, Parkinsonism, and related diseases. Here we describe the possible involvement of gangliosides in the development of AD and the therapeutic potentials of gangliosides in this disorder.     

Aluminium exposure induces Alzheimer's disease-like histopathological alterations in mouse brain

Aluminium (Al) is a neurotoxic metal and Al exposure may be a factor in the aetiology of various neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The major pathohistological findings in the AD brain are the presence of neuritic plaques containing beta-amyloid (Abeta) which may interfere with neuronal communication. Moreover, it has been observed that GRP78, a stress-response protein induced by conditions that adversely affect endoplasmic reticulum (ER) function, is reduced in the brain of AD patients. In this study, we investigated the correlation between the expression of Abeta and GRP78 in the brain cortex of mice chronically treated with aluminium sulphate. Chronic exposure over 12 months to aluminium sulphate in drinking water resulted in deposition of Abeta similar to that seen in congophilic amyloid angiopathy (CAA) in humans and a reduction in neuronal expression of GRP78 similar to what has previously been observed in Alzheimer's disease. So, we hypothesise that chronic Al administration is responsible for oxidative cell damage that interferes with ER functions inducing Abeta accumulation and neurodegenerative damage.