Activation and function of prorenin: different viewpoints.

This Symposium includes 15 presentations and an editorial review dealing with prorenin activation and function. It comes 20 years after prorenin was first reported in various contexts and attracted attention because of its connection with renin--angiotensin, its high concentration relative to renin in the blood, and its presence in extrarenal, as well as renal, tissues. Intriguing changes in plasma prorenin have been reported after treatment with antihypertensive and other drugs, following various physiological stimuli, and in pathophysiological states such as Wilms' tumor, Bartter's syndrome, and diabetic nephropathy. Lately, very high prorenin concentrations have been found in human and animal ocular fluid, ovarian follicular fluid, and in association with angiogenesis and microangiopathy. High circulating prorenin concentrations and fulminant hypertension have been reported in rats harbouring the mouse Ren-2 gene. However, what prorenin does in all these extrarenal fluids, tissues, and conditions is not well understood. Among the reasons for this lack of understanding are the difficulties in measuring prorenin and in establishing good animal models. We have not answered the critical question as to whether prorenin itself is bioactive like a hormone, and if so, what its action(s) might be. Nor have we established the main alternative, i.e., whether the function of prorenin is indirect, through renin--angiotensin, be it in the circulation or in the extrarenal tissues. This Symposium provides only partial methodological advances and answers, but we hope it will stimulate the breakthrough work needed to supply more complete answers.     

Renin substrate (angiotensinogen) preparations in the determination of prorenin and renin: evidence for extrarenal plasma prorenin and its renal "convertase"

Standard methods for determining prorenin-renin concentrations in plasma (PRC) and other tissues require the addition of exogenous renin substrate (angiotensinogen) to improve the kinetics of the renin reaction. We studied the effects of substrate prepared from normal human plasma fraction Cohn IV-4, or from nephrectomized (2NX) sheep plasma, on PRC of normal and 2NX human plasmas before and after prorenin activation by acid, cold, and trypsin, and compared the results with plasma renin activities (PRA, no added substrate). Plasmas from 2NX men exhibited negligible basal PRA, indicating that very little, if any, renin had been formed from the extrarenal prorenin they contained, and suggesting the lack of an endogenous prorenin activating mechanism, or "convertase," of probable renal origin. Prorenin was demonstrable by tryptic activation, more than by acid or cold, at up to about 30% of normal. Addition of Cohn IV-4 substrate to 2NX plasma unexpectedly produced (i) a basal PRC value higher than in normal plasma, (ii) total renin values after activation by acid, cold, and trypsin that were much closer to normal values than reflected by PRA methodology, without a commensurate increase (if anything a decrease) in prorenin as a percentage of total renin estimated by all activation methods, and (iii) substantial equalization of activation effects such that trypsin was no longer more effective than acid and cold (and this was also noted with normal plasma). The skewing effect of adding Cohn IV-4 substrate on the PRC of 2NX plasma was much greater than in normal plasma, even though 2NX plasma already had an above normal level of endogenous substrate and should have been influenced less. Enhancement of PRC was very pronounced even when Cohn IV-4 was added to make up only 9% of total (endogenous + exogenous) substrate in the incubation system, suggesting that it was not the added substrate but a renin-generating contaminant that inflated the PRC. Such inflation could be blocked by adding protease inhibitors, suggesting that the responsible protease(s) acted as a prorenin "convertase" that generated new renin from renal and (or) extrarenal prorenin contributed by the added substrate, as well as by the plasma being assayed. One component of convertase could be kallikrein, which was identified by chromogenic assay, the importance of which relative to total convertase activity is unknown.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Evidence for beta-adrenergic regulation of renal and extrarenal plasma prorenin and renin in dogs

Beta blockade with propranolol for 7 days in healthy normotensive dogs produced a sustained 20-25% drop in heart rate, but only a transient suppression of blood pressure. Plasma renin activity and prorenin were also suppressed transiently, suggesting that both are under beta-receptor regulation. Bilateral nephrectomy (2NX) was followed by rapid clearance of renin from the circulation, at a rate that was minimally influenced by beta blockade. In contrast, the plasma prorenin level rose markedly to a peak within an hour after surgery, leveled off during the next 24 hr, dropped almost toward the pre-2NX baseline by 48 hr, but proceeded to rise again between 48 and 120 hr. Propranolol administration before and during the 2NX period reduced the detectable prorenin, suggesting that its extrarenal source is under beta-adrenergic regulation. The rapid increment of prorenin after 2NX suggests that extrarenal prorenin may have constituted part of the total plasma prorenin before 2NX, and/or had developed sufficiently quickly afterwards to replace and exceed the disappearing renal prorenin. Any fresh increment beyond 48 hr could presumably have been only extrarenal. These observations suggest the existence of a rich beta-regulated extrarenal source of prorenin capable of rapidly supplying the plasma. However, no renin-angiotesin was apparently produced from this prorenin in the nephrectomized state, implying the lack of renal "convertase," without which the prorenin convertase mechanism as a whole was rendered ineffective. The source of the extrarenal prorenin and the identity of the renal convertase remain to be established.     

Extrarenal production and activation of human plasma prorenin: the evidence after venous occlusion

Venous occlusion of the left arm in consenting men was induced for 10 or 20 min to stimulate local fibrinolytic and other proteases, thereby favouring the conversion of prorenin to renin. Using the two techniques cryoactivation and tryptic activation, we found that plasma active renin increased significantly after such occlusion (10 and 20 min) while prorenin rose more convincingly and progressively from 10 to 20 min. The renin increase can be partially attributed to hemoconcentration, but in vivo production and (or) local activation of prorenin to renin cannot be excluded. The prorenin rise can apparently be attributed to local extrarenal production, and not to hemoconcentration or influx, since it was progressive and neither prorenin nor renin levels were raised at all in blood circulating outside the occluded arm. Prekallikrein and plasminogen levels were elevated in occlusion plasmas, but responsibility of these enzyme systems for any enhanced activation of prorenin was not established. The trypsin inhibitory capacity was also elevated, increasing the requirement of trypsin to achieve optimal activation of prorenin, but not changing the prorenin estimate itself. Thus, prorenin appears to be released extrarenally, within the vasculature of an occluded arm, while in vitro evidence suggests that the mechanisms for its activation were stimulated. The importance of such extrarenal production and activation of prorenin for renin production under other physiological or pathophysiological conditions remains to be determined.     

肾素(原)受体在大鼠肾小球系膜细胞和肾脏的表达

近年发现的肾素（原）受体（renin／prorenin receptor,RnR）已被证明具有生物学功能,在心、肾及多种细胞表达。本文旨在观察RnR在体外培养的大鼠肾小球系膜细胞（mesangial cells,MCs）和肾脏中是否表达,及其表达的细胞部位,并用RnR的多肽阻断剂肾素原“柄区肽”（handle region peptide,HRP）与RnR结合后观察受体复合物进入细胞的过程与定位。结果显示,RnR主要存在于大鼠肾脏皮质肾小球系膜区和体外培养的MCs的细胞核周围胞浆和细胞膜。将FITC标记的HRP（FITC-HRP）加入细胞培养液后30S到30min期间,可观察到FITC-HRP由培养液转移到胞浆内并进入细胞核。用免疫荧光和激光共聚焦技术观察到,HRP与RnR的共定位主要位于细胞膜和细胞核周围胞浆;在30min时,一部分HRP已进入细胞核,而RnR没有进入细胞核内,仍主要位于细胞核周围胞浆。上述结果提示,RnR与其配基结合后进入细胞内并发挥生物学效应。     

Characterization of monoclonal antibodies against human prorenin profragment and identification of active prorenins in plasma

Monoclonal antibodies were raised against a synthetic peptide (43 amino acid residues) that corresponds to the complete profragment of human prorenin. Seven monoclonal antibodies were chosen for further characterization. Two antibodies, 2-X-C1 and 4-X-E1, reacted with the middle region and C-terminus of the profragment and were isotyped IgG1. The affinity constants of these antibodies against the human profragment were 7.6 x 10(8) and 3.0 x 10(7) M-1, respectively. Immunoaffinity columns containing the antibodies 2-X-C1 and 4-X-E1, respectively, were used for the characterization of active prorenin in human plasma. This active prorenin strongly bound to the 4-X-E1 column and eluted as two separate peaks which corresponded to fully and partially active prorenin, respectively. The partially active prorenin had higher activity with a small substrate, tridecapeptide, than with a large one, angiotensinogen, although the fully active prorenin had the same renin activity irrespective of the size of the substrate. These data suggest that new forms of prorenin, active prorenin, exist in human plasma and that their active sites are completely or partially exposed to the substrates. Moreover, the active prorenin in plasma was found not only in human but also in all tested mammalians. Cross-reactivity among the profragments of mammalian plasma prorenins can be explained by conservation of the amino acid sequence (epitope) of the combining site.     

Activation of platelet monoamine oxidase by plasma in the human.

A pronounced activation of platelet monoamine oxidase (MAO) by human plasma has been observed. The activation was substrate selective, since serotonin, $\text{p}$-tyramine, dopamine and benzylamine were much more effective than β-phenylethylamine or tryptamine. The activator(s) in the plasma was heat stable but labile to acid hydrolysis and treatment with lipase and protease. The plasma was also found to be capable of activating partially purified MAO obtained from rat liver mitochondria. Phospholipids such as phosphatidylethanolamine were shown to activate MAO.     

Observations on the renal processing and sorting of prorenin.

Human prorenin is the biosynthetic precursor of renin. In general, prorenin is enzymatically inactive until it is converted to renin. The kidney is the major source of renin in the circulation, and is also an important source of circulating prorenin. The mechanisms of prorenin sorting and processing to renin in the juxtaglomerular cell may be a determinant of renal renin production. Therefore, our studies have focused on renal enzymes involved in "limited proteolysis" of prorenin to renin and on the morphology of prorenin sorting in the human juxtaglomerular cell.     

Identification of plasma inactive renin as prorenin with a site-directed antibody

A sequence-specific antibody that recognizes a portion of the prosegment of human renin precursor was raised and used to provide direct evidence that plasma inactive renin contains the prosequence of renal renin and is therefore probably prorenin rather than an inactivated form of previously active renin. The information may help not only to resolve a major controversy concerning the nature of inactive renin in human plasma but also to elucidate its exact physiological role.     

Activation of rat adipocyte plasma membrane adenylate cyclase by sodium azide

The adenylate cyclase of rat adipocyte plasma membrane is stimulated by sodium azide with a half maximal activation of 100–150% occuring at 50 mM NaN₃. Studies of the effects of azide and fluoride indicate different mechanisms of stimulation of the enzyme by these ions. Comparable stimulation of the activity is obtained by 100 mM NaN₃ or 10 mM NaF but unlike azide, higher concentrations of fluoride cause inhibition of the enzyme. Fluoride activated adenylate cyclase is further stimulated by azide. Epinephrine stimulation of the enzyme is absent in the presence of fluoride but the hormone enhances the activity in the presence of azide. Reversal of the inhibitory action of GTP on adenylate cyclase by epinephrine is demonstrated even in the presence of azide but not in the presence of fluoride.     

Purification and characterization of human truncated prorenin.

Posttranslational processing of enzymatically inactive prorenin to an active form participates in the control of the activity of a key system involved in blood pressure regulation, growth, and other important functions. The issue is complicated because renin can be produced by a number of tissues throughout the body, in addition to the kidney, but the mechanism by which they process prorenin to renin is unknown and difficult to determine because of the small amounts of renin present. In the juxtaglomerular cell of the kidney, a 43 amino acid prosegment is cleaved from the amino terminus of prorenin to generate renin of molecular weight 44,000 [Do, Y. S., Shinagawa, T., Tam, H., Inagami, T., & Hsueh, W. A. (1987) J. Biol. Chem. 262, 1037-1043]. Using human uterine lining or a recombinant human prorenin system, we employed the same approach as that used in kidney, ammonium sulfate precipitation at pH 3.1 followed by pepstatin and H-77 affinity chromatography or gel filtration, to purify to homogeneity a 45,500-MW totally active renin. The specific activity of the active truncated prorenin was 850 Goldblatt units (GU)/mg of protein for chorion-decidua renin and 946 GU/mg of protein for recombinant renin, both similar to that reported for pure human renal renin. Both forms of renin cross-reacted with an antibody generated against 44,00-MW pure human renal renin and with an antibody generated against a peptide identical to the carboxy-terminal one-third of the prosegment.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Activation of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate kinase in rat liver plasma membranes by polyamines

The formation of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) from endogenous substrate in rat liver plasma membranes was stimulated approximately 3-fold by 1 mM spermine, with half-maximal effect at 0.2 mM polyamine. This effect of spermine was due to enhancement of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate kinase activity rather than to a decrease in degradation of PIP2 formed or the substrate phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PIP). The stimulation of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate kinase by spermine decreased to half at physiological ionic strength, and was not affected appreciably by variations in the concentration of ATP and MgCl2. Among several di- and polyamines only spermine and spermidine were effective. Although spermine may cause aggregation of membrane vesicles, thereby potentially increasing substrate availability for phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate kinase, our results do not support such an explanation for the enhancement in enzyme activity. Phosphatidylinositol kinase activity, contrary to phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate kinase, was not stimulated appreciably by spermine.     

Site-directed mutagenesis of human prorenin. Substitution of three arginine residues in the propeptide with glutamine residues yields active prorenin

Human prorenin is an inactive zymogen comprising 43 amino acid residues at the amino terminus of human renin. The aim of this work was to determine why prorenin is inactive at neutral pH. Eighteen different mutant prorenins, in which positively charged residues in the propeptide were substituted with either glutamine (Gln) or lysine (Lys) residues by site-directed mutagenesis, were expressed in COS-7 cells and characterized. By replacing each of the three arginine (Arg) residues (Arg10P, Arg15P, and Arg20P) with Gln residues, partially active prorenins were produced, which exhibited significant but not full renin activity without trypsin activation. The effect of double or triple amino acid substitutions on the appearance of active prorenin was cumulative, the activity reaching about 80% in a mutant in which all the three Arg residues were replaced by Gln residues. In contrast, mutant prorenins with Lys residues substituted for the Arg residues were inactive. These results clearly indicate that the positive charges of the three Arg residues are essential for maintenance of the human prorenin in an inactive form.     

The measurement in vivo of the rate of unesterified cholesterol exchange between rat plasma and erythrocytes

In order to investigate the rate of unesterified cholesterol exchange between plasma and erythrocytes in vivo, cholesterol labelling in rats was achieved in one of the following ways: intravenous injection of cholesterol-labelled erythrocytes, subcutaneous injection of labelled acetate, feeding of labelled cholesterol. The specific activity of the unesterified cholesterol was measured at intervals up to 24 h and a kinetic analysis of the data was performed. It assumes that both the cholesterol in the erythrocytes and the unesterified cholesterol in the plasma were homogeneous pools. The rate constants obtained for the movements of unesterified cholesterol from erythrocytes to plasma and from plasma to erythrocytes were not significantly different in the three labelling conditions (mean values: 0.26 and 1.5 h-1, respectively).