Eye size variation reflects habitat and daily activity patterns in colubrid snakes

The functioning of the vertebrate eye depends on its absolute size, which is presumably adapted to specific needs. Eye size variation in lidless and spectacled colubrid snakes was investigated, including 839 specimens belonging to 49 genera, 66 species and subspecies. Variations of adult eye diameters (EDs) in both absolute and relative terms between species were correlated with parameters reflecting behavioral ecology. In absolute terms, eye of arboreal species was larger than in terrestrial and semiaquatic species. For diurnal species, EDs of terrestrial species do not differ from semiaquatic species; for nocturnal species the ED of terrestrial species is larger than fossorial species but not different from semiaquatic species. In relative terms, ED did not differ significantly by habitat for diurnal species. Although the ED of terrestrial species is larger than fossorial species there were no differences for nocturnal species between semiaquatic and fossorial snakes. In contrast to other vertebrates studied to date, colubrid EDs in absolute and relative terms are larger in diurnal than in nocturnal species. These observations suggest that among colubrid snakes, eye size variation reflects adaptation to specific habitats, foraging strategies and daily activities, independently of phylogeny. J. Morphol. 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Lake Erie water snakes revisited: Morph- and age-specific variation in relative crypsis

Summary Populations of water snakes (Nerodia sipedon insularum) on islands in western Lake Erie are variable in colour pattern, consisting of unbanded, intermediate, and banded morphs. In contrast, mainland populations (N. s. sipedon) consist solely of banded morphs. Previous investigators hypothesized that natural selection favoured unbanded morphs on exposed island shorelines and banded morphs in overgrown mainland habitats and that gene flow from mainland populations was responsible for the persistence of banded morphs on islands. To clarify the potential role of natural selection, I quantified relative crypsis among morphs and age classes of water snakes by comparing the size of patches making up their colour patterns with the size of patches in island and mainland backgrounds. This analysis reveals that if unbanded morphs are more cryptic than intermediate and banded morphs on islands, it is only in the young-of-the-year age class. For older snakes on islands and for all snakes on the mainland, unbanded morphs are consistently less cryptic than intermediate and banded morphs. Given these results, the net direction of selection in island populations should depend on the intensity of predation on different age classes of snakes. Overall, selection may favour unbanded morphs (e.g. if predation occurs primarily on young-of-the-year), intermediate and banded morphs (e.g. if predation occurs primarily on older snakes), or be weak or absent (e.g. certain combinations of predation on young-of-the-year and older snakes). Using estimates of relative crypsis to guide reanalysis of morph frequency data, I find support for the hypothesis that unbanded morphs are favoured by natural selection in island populations.     

Coccidian Parasites (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) of Nerodia spp. (Serpentes: Colubridae), with a Description of a New Species of Eimeria

Eimeria conanli n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) is described from intestinal contents and feces of Nerodia erythrogaster transversa and N harteri harteri from northcentral Texas. Oocysts of the new species are ellipsoid in shape. 17.9 × 13.0(15–21 × 12–15) μm, with a smooth, thin, single-layered wall; shape index 1.4 (1.2–1.5). One to several (usually 2) polar granule(s) and an oocyst residuum are present, but a micropyie is absent. Sporocysts are elongate, 12.9 × 5.2 (13–15 × 5–6) -m, apparently without a true Stieda body structure. Each sporoeyst contains an ellipsoid residuum, 3.9 × 3.2 (3–6 × 2–4) μm, and elongate sporozoites, 11.4 × 2.5 (10–14 × 2–3) μm in situ, each with a spherical or subspherical anterior refractile body and spherical to ellipsoid posterior refractile body. In addition to the new species, oocysts of 4 previously described eimerians from colubrid snakes were found in these hosts.     

THE EVOLUTION OF REPRODUCTIVE EFFORT IN LIZARDS AND SNAKES

Life history theory suggests that the optimal evolved level of reproductive effort (RE) for an organism depends upon the degree to which additional current reproductive investment reduces future reproductive output. Future reproduction can be decreased in two ways, through (i) decreases in the organism's survival rate, and/or (ii) decreases in the organism's growth (and hence subsequent fecundity). The latter tradeoff–that is, the “potential fecundity cost”—should affect the evolution of RE only in species with relatively high survival rate, a relatively high rate of fecundity increase with body size, or a relatively high reproductive frequency per annum. Unless these conditions are met, the probable benefit in future fecundity obtained from decreasing present reproductive output is too low for natural selection to favor any reduction in RE below the maximum physiologically possible. Published data on survival rate, reproductive frequency and relative clutch mass (RCM) suggest that many lizard species fall well below the level at which natural selection can be expected to influence RE through such “potential fecundity” tradeoffs. Hence, the relative allocation of resources between growth and reproduction is unlikely to be directly optimized by natural selection in these animals. Instead, energy allocation should influence the evolution of RE only indirectly, via effects on an organism's probability of survival during reproduction. Survival costs of reproduction may be the most important evolutionary determinants of RE in many reptiles, and information on the nature and extent of such costs is needed before valid measures of reptilian RE can be constructed.     

One species hides many: Molecular and morphological evidence for cryptic speciation in a thread snake (Leptotyphlopidae: Leptotyphlops sylvicolus Broadley & Wallach, 1997)

We investigate the phylogeographic structure of a fossorial forest‐living snake species, the forest thread snake, Leptotyphlopssylvicolus Broadley & Wallach, 1997 by sampling specimens from the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu‐Natal provinces of South Africa. Phylogenetic results, using Bayesian inferences and maximum likelihood, from the combined mitochondrial sequence data (cyt b and ND4), along with population genetic analyses suggest the presence of phylogeographic breaks broadly congruent to those exhibited by other forest‐living taxa. Divergence‐time estimates indicate that cladogenesis within the study taxon occurred during the late Miocene climatic shifts, suggesting that cladogenesis was driven by habitat fragmentation. We further investigate the species‐level divergence within L. sylvicolus by including two partial nuclear loci (PRLR and RAG1). The three species delimitation methods (ABGD, bGMYC, and STACEY), retrieved 10–12 putative species nested within the L. sylvicolus species complex. These results were corroborated by iBPP implementing molecular and morphological data in an integrative Bayesian framework. The morphological analyses exhibit large overlap among putative species but indicate differences between grassland and forest species. Due to the narrow distributions of these putative species, the results of the present study have further implications for the conservation status of the L. sylvicolus species complex and suggest that forest and grassland habitats along the east coast of South Africa may harbor significantly higher levels of diversity than currently recognized.     

New highlights about the enigmatic marine snake Palaeophis maghrebianus (Palaeophiidae; Palaeophiinae) from the Ypresian (Lower Eocene) phosphates of Morocco

Abstract: Palaeophis maghrebianus belongs to the Palaeophiinae (Palaeophiidae). This snake subfamily is relatively poorly known, and it is mainly represented by disarticulated vertebrae and ribs and by a few vertebral segments. Its intracolumnar variability remains also poorly understood. The discovery of new isolated vertebrae and vertebral segments of Palaeophis maghrebianus in the Ypresian (Lower Eocene) Phosphates of Morocco enables us to provide a more detailed diagnosis of this species and to describe its intracolumnar variability. Moreover, the new material reveals that this species could reach gigantic size being, with Palaeophis colossaeus, one of the two longer palaeophiids. The microanatomical and histological analysis of some vertebrae illustrating diverse positions along the vertebral column reveals the presence of osteosclerosis, especially in the anterior and mid‐precloacal regions. The occurrence of this osseous specialization implies a role in buoyancy and body trim control in this taxon, which is considered a shallow marine dweller based on its anatomical features and geological data. Palaeophis maghrebianus also displays a dense vascular network suggesting a growth speed, and thus a metabolic rate, much higher than in the biggest extant snakes.     

Predation on snakes of Argentina: Effects of coloration and ring pattern on coral and false coral snakes

The occurrence of coral snake coloration among unrelated venomous and non‐venomous snake species has often been explained in terms of warning coloration and mimicry. In Argentina, no field tests have been conducted to confirm this mimetic association between one venomous coral species (Micrurus phyrrocryptus, Elapidae) and two non‐venomous snake species with a similar color pattern (Lystrophis pulcher and Oxyrhopus rhombifer, Colubridae). The aims of this work were to test for the possible aposematic or cryptic function of the ring pattern and coloration of coral snakes and false coral snakes from central Argentina, and to analyse whether the pattern is effective throughout the year. Predation on snakes was estimated by using non‐toxic plasticine replicas of ringed venomous and non‐venomous snakes and unbanded green snakes placed along transects in their natural habitat during the dry and rainy season. Ringed color pattern was attacked by predators despite the background color. One of the replica types was attacked more than expected during the dry season, suggesting that both shape and width of rings may influence the choice by predators. The reaction of predators towards replicas that mimic snake species with ringed patterns is independent of the geographical region, and we can conclude that mimicry characteristics are quite general when the true models are present in the area.     

Long-distance relocation of nestboxes reduces nest predation by Pine Marten Martes martes

Capsule Clutches of hole-nesting passerines suffer less predation if nestboxes are moved by 800–3000 m.

Aims To see if Pine Marten predation upon clutches of insectivorous birds increases with the age of nestboxes and to see if predation is affected by the distance nestboxes are relocated from the plots where predation occurred the previous year.

Methods The study was undertaken in two habitats of central Italy (deciduous and Holm Oak wood). In each habitat, nestboxes were placed and relocated in order to have plots with: new (first year of placement) or old (second year of placement) nestboxes; short (100 m) or long-distance (800–3000 m) relocated nestboxes following previous predation.

Results After controlling for habitat, hole-nester density, competition with snakes and nestbox age, the plots with nestboxes replaced at a short distance from the original location suffered higher predation pressure. Pine Marten predation was higher in plots with older nestboxes. A high predation rate was observed in nestboxes replaced in plots where they had not been present for one year and where they had been heavily preyed on in past years.

Conclusion To reduce the risks of predation by mammals, the relocation of old nestboxes should be carried out at a long distance from plots where predation had previously occurred.