Association of lucid dreaming frequency with Stroop task performance.

Lucid dreaming involves the attentional skill of having metacognition about the dreamer's state of consciousness at the same time as being engaged in the dream scenario. A combination of two levels of cognition also occurs in the incongruent condition of the Stroop task, where there is interference between the attentional demands of a relatively difficult (color naming) and an easy (reading) task. It was thus hypothesized that frequent lucid dreamers would perform better on the Stroop task than would nonlucid dreamers. Individuals who reported having lucid dreams more than once per month (n = 15) were found to be significantly faster on the incongruent condition of the Stroop task than were occasional lucid dreamers (n = 15) or nonlucid dreamers (n = 15). The groups did not differ on the standard colored nonword control condition. Continuity in attentional ability between waking and dreaming cognition was thus found. This continuity may counteract the psychophysiologically dominant and possibly evolutionarily selected lack of self-awareness in dreams. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-agency in rhesus monkeys

Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) have shown the ability to monitor their own mental states, but fail the mirror self-recognition test. In humans, the sense of self-agency is closely related to self-awareness, and results from monitoring the relationship between intentional, sensorimotor and perceptual information. Humans and rhesus monkeys were trained to move a computer icon with a joystick while a distractor icon partially matched their movements. Both humans and monkeys were able to monitor and identify the icon they were controlling, suggesting they have some understanding of self-agency.     

Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in primates

To date humans, chimpanzees, and orangutans are the only species which have been shown capable of recognizing themselves in mirrors. Several species of macaques have now been provided with years of continuous exposure to mirrors, but they still persist in reacting to their reflection as if they were seeing other monkeys. Even gibbons (apes) and gorillas (great apes) seem incapable of learning that their behavior is the source of the behavior depicted in the image. Most primates, therefore, appear to lack a cognitive category for processing mirrored information about themselves. The implications of these data for traditional views of consciousness are considered briefly, and a recent attempt to develop an operant analog to self-recognition is critically evaluated. Finally, an attempt is made to show that self-awareness, consciousness, and mind are not mutually exclusive cognitive categories and that the emergence of self-awareness may be equivalent to the emergence of mind. Several indices of “mind” which can be applied to nonhuman species are discussed in the context of an attempt to develop a comparative psychology of mind.     

Mirror-mediated responses of California scrub jays (Aphelocoma californica) during a caching task and the mark test

Mirror self-recognition, as an index of self-awareness, has been proposed as a precursor for more complex social cognitive abilities, such as prosocial reasoning and cooperative decision-making. Indeed, evidence for mirror self-recognition has been shown for animals possessing complex social cognitive abilities such as great apes, dolphins, elephants and corvids. California scrub jays (Aphelocoma californica) have provided strong evidence that non-human animals are capable of mental state attribution. For instance, scrub jays are reported to use their experience stealing the food of others to infer that other birds may similarly intend to steal from them. If a concept of “self” is required for such complex social cognitive abilities, then scrub jays might be expected to show mirror self-recognition. Thus, we examined whether California scrub jays are capable of mirror self-recognition using two experimental contexts: a caching task and the mark test. During the caching task, we compared the extent to which scrub jays protected their food after caching alone, in the presence of a conspecific and in the presence of a mirror. The birds did not engage in more cache protection behaviours with a mirror present than when caching alone, suggesting scrub jays may have recognized their reflection and so did not expect cache theft. Alternative explanations for this behaviour are also discussed. During the mark test, the scrub jays were surreptitiously marked with a red or plumage-coloured control sticker. The scrub jays showed no evidence of mirror self-recognition during the mark test, as the birds did not preferentially attempt to remove the red mark in the presence of a mirror. Together, the results provide mixed evidence of the mirror self-recognition abilities of California scrub jays. We highlight the need to develop alternative approaches for evaluating mirror self-recognition in non-human animals to better understand its relationship with complex social cognition.     

Binge Eating,Body Image,Depression, and Self-Efficacy in an Obese Clinical Population

CARGILL, BRIAN R., MATTHEW M. CLARK, VINCENT PERA, RAYMOND S. NIAURA, AND DAVID B. ABRAMS. Binge eating, body image, depression, and self-efficacy in an obese clinical population. Obes Res. Objective: Binge eating disorder appears to be an important factor in obesity treatment. Researchers have proposed that specialized treatment programs be developed to address chronic binge eating behavior. This study was conducted to examine the relationships between binge eating, depression, body image, and self-efficacy. Based on related research, it was hypothesized that depression and negative body image would be greater for binge eaters whereas weight self-efficacy would be lower. Research Methods and Procedures: Subjects were 159 clinic patients participating in a multidisciplinary weight management program. Baseline measurements of binge eating status, body image and related eating behaviors, depression, and self-efficacy were obtained, whereas follow-up measures consisted of weight loss and attendance. Exploratory factor analyses were performed to obtain factors for items contained in the Eating Habits Questionnaire. Chi-square, t-tests, and logistic regression analyses determined relationships between binge eating, body image, depression, and self-efficacy. Results: Univariate comparisons indicated that increased perceptions of poor body image were significantly related to binge eating. Higher levels of depression and lower weight self-efficacy were related to binge eating, but the results were qualified after applying corrective statistics for multiple comparisons. A stepwise regression analysis indicated that body image, particularly characterized by a sense of shame and concern with public appearance, had the strongest relationship to binge eating among all the factors examined in this study. Discussion: These findings extend current understanding of the relationships between binge eating, body image, depression, and self-efficacy. The significance of body image, especially in relation to negative social consciousness, was determined when comparing several psychological and behavioral factors thought to influence binge eating. Further research is needed to determine the causal relationships between binge eating and the other factors examined in this study.     

Monkeys,apes, mirrors and minds: The evolution of self-awareness in primates

Almost two decades of research on the self-recognition capacity of non-human primates has produced evidence of intriguing phylogenetic differences. Not a single species of monkey has demonstrated the ability to recognize its own reflection in a mirror, despite some claims to the contrary. To date, only humans, orangutans and chimpanzees have passed objective tests of mirror-recognition. This paper reviews the methodology and evidence for self-recognition in primates along with the assumption that this ability is an indicator of self-awareness. The failure of the gorilla to master the task is discussed in some detail, along with an evaluation of anecdotal evidence of self-recognition by at least one gorilla. Also, the evolutionary backdrop of the primates is considered with reference to this unique behavior. Evidence supporting alternate, non-cognitive interpretations of self-recognition is assessed.