全文获取类型
收费全文 | 81786篇 |
免费 | 6957篇 |
国内免费 | 26篇 |
出版年
2023年 | 371篇 |
2022年 | 321篇 |
2021年 | 1521篇 |
2020年 | 1062篇 |
2019年 | 1321篇 |
2018年 | 1731篇 |
2017年 | 1493篇 |
2016年 | 2483篇 |
2015年 | 3918篇 |
2014年 | 4264篇 |
2013年 | 5542篇 |
2012年 | 6638篇 |
2011年 | 6372篇 |
2010年 | 4038篇 |
2009年 | 3518篇 |
2008年 | 4906篇 |
2007年 | 4795篇 |
2006年 | 4404篇 |
2005年 | 3963篇 |
2004年 | 3856篇 |
2003年 | 3553篇 |
2002年 | 3342篇 |
2001年 | 992篇 |
2000年 | 833篇 |
1999年 | 909篇 |
1998年 | 801篇 |
1997年 | 586篇 |
1996年 | 571篇 |
1995年 | 599篇 |
1994年 | 576篇 |
1993年 | 543篇 |
1992年 | 576篇 |
1991年 | 523篇 |
1990年 | 516篇 |
1989年 | 499篇 |
1988年 | 474篇 |
1987年 | 447篇 |
1986年 | 354篇 |
1985年 | 406篇 |
1984年 | 420篇 |
1983年 | 351篇 |
1982年 | 353篇 |
1981年 | 328篇 |
1980年 | 304篇 |
1979年 | 295篇 |
1978年 | 230篇 |
1977年 | 248篇 |
1976年 | 226篇 |
1975年 | 245篇 |
1973年 | 215篇 |
排序方式: 共有10000条查询结果,搜索用时 143 毫秒
1.
2.
3.
Daniela Bellicoso Maureen Trudeau Margaret I. Fitch Martin R. Ralph 《Chronobiology international》2017,34(6):808-818
Primary caregivers for victims of chronic illness and or trauma experience both positive and negative emotional consequences. These are broadly classified as compassion satisfaction (CS) and compassion fatigue (CF). Because one of the components of CF, burnout, varies with chronotype and sleep quality, we assessed the influence of chronobiological features on the broader constructs of CS and CF. Responses from primary ambulatory care oncology staff working dayshifts were assessed for potential relationships of chronotype and sleep quality with CS and CF using the professional quality of life scale. These were analyzed further in a multivariate model that included personality and job satisfaction as cofactors. We found that sleep quality was a key contributor to CS development and CF reduction. Morningness was positively linked to CS, but the univariate association was masked in the multivariate model. Job satisfaction (contingent rewards, nature of work and operating procedures) heavily influenced CS and CF development. Agreeableness and openness showed positive correlations with CS and negative with burnout, while emotional stability was linked to reduced CF. While job satisfaction and personality predictably played roles in the development of CS and CF, sleep quality and chronotype contributed significantly to benefits and negative consequences of providing care. 相似文献
4.
Andrea Ceci Martin Kierans Stephen Hillier Anna Maria Persiani Geoffrey Michael Gadd 《Applied and environmental microbiology》2015,81(15):4955-4964
Fungi play important roles in biogeochemical processes such as organic matter decomposition, bioweathering of minerals and rocks, and metal transformations and therefore influence elemental cycles for essential and potentially toxic elements, e.g., P, S, Pb, and As. Arsenic is a potentially toxic metalloid for most organisms and naturally occurs in trace quantities in soil, rocks, water, air, and living organisms. Among more than 300 arsenic minerals occurring in nature, mimetite [Pb5(AsO4)3Cl] is the most stable lead arsenate and holds considerable promise in metal stabilization for in situ and ex situ sequestration and remediation through precipitation, as do other insoluble lead apatites, such as pyromorphite [Pb5(PO4)3Cl] and vanadinite [Pb5(VO4)3Cl]. Despite the insolubility of mimetite, the organic acid-producing soil fungus Aspergillus niger was able to solubilize mimetite with simultaneous precipitation of lead oxalate as a new mycogenic biomineral. Since fungal biotransformation of both pyromorphite and vanadinite has been previously documented, a new biogeochemical model for the biogenic transformation of lead apatites (mimetite, pyromorphite, and vanadinite) by fungi is hypothesized in this study by application of geochemical modeling together with experimental data. The models closely agreed with experimental data and provided accurate simulation of As and Pb complexation and biomineral formation dependent on, e.g., pH, cation-anion composition, and concentration. A general pattern for fungal biotransformation of lead apatite minerals is proposed, proving new understanding of ecological implications of the biogeochemical cycling of component elements as well as industrial applications in metal stabilization, bioremediation, and biorecovery. 相似文献
5.
6.
Maria Weinert Tharakeswari Selvakumar Travis S. Tierney Kambiz N. Alavian 《Journal of visualized experiments : JoVE》2015,(96)
Degeneration of mesencephalic dopaminergic (mesDA) neurons is the pathological hallmark of Parkinson’s diseae. Study of the biological processes involved in physiological functions and vulnerability and death of these neurons is imparative to understanding the underlying causes and unraveling the cure for this common neurodegenerative disorder. Primary cultures of mesDA neurons provide a tool for investigation of the molecular, biochemical and electrophysiological properties, in order to understand the development, long-term survival and degeneration of these neurons during the course of disease. Here we present a detailed method for the isolation, culturing and maintenance of midbrain dopaminergic neurons from E12.5 mouse (or E14.5 rat) embryos. Optimized cell culture conditions in this protocol result in presence of axonal and dendritic projections, synaptic connections and other neuronal morphological properties, which make the cultures suitable for study of the physiological, cell biological and molecular characteristics of this neuronal population. 相似文献
7.
John A. Nyakatura Vivian R. Allen Jonas Laustr?er Amir Andikfar Marek Danczak Hans-Jürgen Ullrich Werner Hufenbach Thomas Martens Martin S. Fischer 《PloS one》2015,10(9)
Orobates pabsti, a basal diadectid from the lower Permian, is a key fossil for the understanding of early amniote evolution. Quantitative analysis of anatomical information suffers from fragmentation of fossil bones, plastic deformation due to diagenetic processes and fragile preservation within surrounding rock matrix, preventing further biomechanical investigation. Here we describe the steps taken to digitally reconstruct MNG 10181, the holotype specimen of Orobates pabsti, and subsequently use the digital reconstruction to assess body mass, position of the centre of mass in individual segments as well as the whole animal, and study joint mobility in the shoulder and hip joints. The shape of most fossil bone fragments could be recovered from micro-focus computed tomography scans. This also revealed structures that were hitherto hidden within the rock matrix. However, parts of the axial skeleton had to be modelled using relevant isolated bones from the same locality as templates. Based on the digital fossil, mass of MNG 10181 was estimated using a model of body shape that was varied within a plausible range to account for uncertainties of the dimension. In the mean estimate model the specimen had an estimated mass of circa 4 kg. Varying of the mass distribution amongst body segments further revealed that Orobates carried most of its weight on the hind limbs. Mostly unrestricted joint morphology further suggested that MNG 10181 was able to effectively generate propulsion with the pelvic limbs. The digital reconstruction is made available for future biomechanical studies. 相似文献
8.
Liu Yewei; Kranias Evangelia G.; Schneider Martin F. 《American journal of physiology. Cell physiology》1997,273(6):C1915
The effects ofphosphorylation status on Ca2+release and Ca2+ removal werestudied in fast-twitch flexor digitorum brevis and slow-twitch soleusskeletal muscle fibers enzymatically isolated from wild-type andphospholamban knockout (PLBko) mice. In all fibers the adenosine3',5'-cyclic monophosphate-dependent protein kinase (PKA)inhibitor H-89 decreased the peak amplitude of the intracellularCa2+ concentration([Ca2+]) transient fora single action potential, and the PKA activator dibutyryl adenosine3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (DBcAMP) reversed this effect,indicating modulation of Ca2+release by phosphorylation status in all fibers. H-89 decreased thedecay rate constant of the[Ca2+] transient andDBcAMP reversed this effect only in phospholamban-expressing fibers(wild-type soleus), indicating modulation ofCa2+ removal only in the presenceof phospholamban. A high basal level of PKA phosphorylation in soleusfibers maintained under our control conditions was indicated bythe lack of effect of direct application of DBcAMP onCa2+ release orCa2+ removal in wild-type or PLBkosoleus fibers and was confirmed by analysis of phospholamban fromwild-type soleus fibers. 相似文献
9.
Konstantina Zografou George C. Adamidis Marjan Komnenov Vassiliki Kati Pavlos Sotirakopoulos Eva Pitta Maria Chatzaki 《Journal of Insect Conservation》2017,21(3):531-543
Our understanding of arthropod responses to environmental pressures is limited, especially for the poorly studied Mediterranean region. In the light of likely further environmental change and the need for protocols for rapid biodiversity assessment, we measured how the abundance and species richness of two taxa, ground spiders and Orthoptera, belonging to different functional groups, fluctuates intra- seasonally (early-mid-late summer) and across habitat types (grasslands, maquis, forests). We also tested their surrogate value. Spiders were found to have higher species richness and abundance almost throughout the investigation. Orthoptera had lower species richness and abundance in forests compared to grasslands and maquis, while no significant difference between habitats was revealed for spiders. Early-summer was the richest period for spiders while mid-summer was the richest for Orthoptera. Canopy cover was found to significantly influence community composition of both groups, while herb height and cover of stones was a determinant factor for Orthoptera only. There was a significant congruence between the two groups and Orthoptera provided the best complementary network. Our results show that diversity patterns of both spiders and Orthoptera are sensitive to environmental changes even over short time-scales (e.g. within the summer period) and space (e.g. across different habitat types), suggesting that small inexpensive experimental designs may still reveal community dynamics. For conservation purposes, we advise a focus on variables regulating habitat heterogeneity and microhabitat characteristics. We provide a list of the most influential species and propose the most effective network for obtaining information on the local fauna. 相似文献
10.
Kurt B. Petersen Martin Burd 《Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society》2017,92(3):1739-1754
The primitive land plant life cycle featured the production of spores of unimodal size, a condition called homospory. The evolution of bimodal size distributions with small male spores and large female spores, known as heterospory, was an innovation that occurred repeatedly in the history of land plants. The importance of desiccation‐resistant spores for colonization of the land is well known, but the adaptive value of heterospory has never been well established. It was an addition to a sexual life cycle that already involved male and female gametes. Its role as a precursor to the evolution of seeds has received much attention, but this is an evolutionary consequence of heterospory that cannot explain the transition from homospory to heterospory (and the lack of evolutionary reversal from heterospory to homospory). Enforced outcrossing of gametophytes has often been mentioned in connection to heterospory, but we review the shortcomings of this argument as an explanation of the selective advantage of heterospory. Few alternative arguments concerning the selective forces favouring heterospory have been proposed, a paucity of attention that is surprising given the importance of this innovation in land plant evolution. In this review we highlight two ideas that may lead us to a better understanding of why heterospory evolved. First, models of optimal resource allocation – an approach that has been used for decades in evolutionary ecology to help understand parental investment and other life‐history patterns – suggest that an evolutionary increase in spore size could reach a threshold at which small spores yielding small, sperm‐producing gametophytes would return greater fitness per unit of resource investment than would large spores and bisexual gametophytes. With the advent of such microspores, megaspores would evolve under frequency‐dependent selection. This argument can account for the appearance of heterospory in the Devonian, when increasingly tall and complex vegetative communities presented competitive conditions that made large spore size advantageous. Second, heterospory is analogous in many ways to anisogamy. Indeed, heterospory is a kind of re‐invention of anisogamy within the context of a sporophyte‐dominant land plant life cycle. The evolution of anisogamy has been the subject of important theoretical and empirical investigation. Recent work in this area suggests that mate‐encounter dynamics set up selective forces that can drive the evolution of anisogamy. We suggest that similar dispersal and mating dynamics could have underlain spore size differentiation. The two approaches offer predictions that are consistent with currently available data but could be tested far more thoroughly. We hope to re‐establish attention on this neglected aspect of plant evolutionary biology and suggest some paths for empirical investigation. 相似文献