The effect of sucrose on the levels of abscisic acid, indoleacetic acid and zeatin/zeatin riboside in wheat ears growing in liquid culture

The influence of a varied sucrose supply on grain size and hormonal contents of detached wheat ears ( Triticwn aestivum L. cv. Schirokko) was investigated throughout grain development. In ears led limited amounts, or no sucrose, grain weights in both proximal and distal grain positions of the ear were reduced. Radioimmunoassay for abscisic acid, indoleacetic acid and zeatin/zeatin riboside showed that the changes in the levels of these hormones in grains and bracts were comparable to intact ears when detached ears were well supplied with sucrose. Under conditions of limited sucrose supply, higher abscisic acid levels in the distal and proximal grains of detached ears were found compared to ears supplied with adequate sucrose. Limiting sucrose supply to the ear did not alter the levels of indoleacetic acid or zeatin/zeatin riboside in either the grains or bracts of detached ears.     

Auxins,ABA and gibberellin-like activity in abscising and non-abscising flowers and pods of Vicia faba L.

Abscission probability varies among floral positions within inflorescences of Vicia faba L. Flowers from proximal positions have a greater chance to develop into mature pods than flowers from more distal positions which normally abscise either as older flowers or as young pods. In three field experiments with the indeterminate single stem variety Herz-Freya, changes in the contents of extractable auxins, abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellins in flowers and pods during their development, and their possible influence on abscission were investigated.Inflorescences at different positions along the stem were divided into the two proximal and the remaining fruits. The content of all three hormones was at a low level during flower development, increased greatly in parallel with dry matter accumulation in the young pods, and then decreased to maturity. The first hormone to increase in the fruits was auxin and this took place when abscission from the distal positions began. ABA and gibberellins at this time were still at a low level. This ontogenic course of hormone production was very similar in fruits of both positions within an inflorescence, but in flowers and young pods from proximal positions, auxin content in most inflorescences was greater than in those from the abscising distal positions. No such positional differences were observed with ABA and gibberellins. Decapitation of the plants reduced flower and pod drop from the remaining reproductive nodes. Although decapitation resulted in less abscission among distal flowers and young pods from these nodes, it did not affect the ontogenic course of auxin and ABA production in these fruits.     

Growth rate of potato tubers and endogenous contents of indolylacetic acid and abscisic acid

Potato plants ( Solanum tuberosum L. ev. Ostara) were grown in water culture and the growth rate of individual tubers was measured daily or at two day intervals. Tubers of different growth rate and/or different age (days after tuberization) were harvested and analysed for indolylacetic acid (IAA) and abscisic acid (ABA). Within individual tubers the IAA content decreases from the apical to the basal part of the tuber. Tuber age and corresponding fresh weight are negatively correlated with the endogenous IAA content. If, however, individual tubers of comparable age but different growth rates are compared, a significant positive correlation between growth rate and IAA content is revealed, while ABA showed a significant negative correlation with growth rate. Removal of all fast-growing tubers from individual plants causes an increase in the growth rate of the remaining tubers within 3–4 days. This coincides with a particularly steep increase in IAA content. The data support the idea that endogenous IAA content may be one factor responsible for controlling the growth rate ("sink-activity ") of individual tubers.     

Diffusible IAA and dominance phenomena in fruits of apple and tomato

The relationships between indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) diffusing out of the fruit and competition among fruits, and between fruits and shoot tips were investigated using apple ( Malus domestica Borkh. cv. Jonagold) and tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) plants. Dominant fruits always had more diffusible IAA than subordinated, inhibited fruits. Alterations in dominance – by fruit- or shoot tip removal – led to significant changes in diffusible IAA by the remaining fruits. This change could be detected one day after dominance modification.
It is suggested that diffusible IAA is involved in the correlative signal regulating dominance relationship between fruits, and between fruits and shoots in apple and tomato.     

Strong synergistic effects of gibberellins with the synthetic cytokinin N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea on parthenocarpic fruit set and some other fruit characteristics of apple

The induction of parthenocarpic fruit set was investigated using the apple cvs. Golden Delicious and Jonagold. The gibberellins GA₃, GA₄, GA₅ and GA₇ and the synthetic phenylurea-type cytokinin CPPU (N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea), were applied alone and in combination to unpollinated flowers at the end of petal fall. Gibberellins induced only a marginal final set of parthenocarpic fruits. CPPU sprays were more effective, particularly in the first year. When applied in combination, CPPU and gibberellins had a positive synergistic effect on parthenocarpic fruit set and fruit size, but a negative effect on flower induction the next year. After CPPU + GA sprays, percent fruit set was similar, or greater, compared to natural pollinated trees. The parthenocarpic fruits induced by CPPU + GA had an increased length to diameter ratio. CPPU stimulated, and GA₄ and GA₇ reduced, the russeting of the parthenocarpic fruits. The internal quality of the fruits was hardly affected, but Ca-deficiency symptoms occurred more frequently in parthenocarpic fruits.     

Metabolism of Auxin in Tomato Fruit Tissue: Formation of High Molecular Weight Conjugates of Oxindole-3-Acetic Acid via the Oxidation of Indole-3-Acetylaspartic Acid

High performance liquid chromatography of extracts of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) incubated with a relatively low concentration (4 μm) of [1-¹⁴C]indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) revealed the presence of two major polar metabolites. Hydrolysis of the two metabolites with 7 n NaOH yielded the same compound, which had a retention time similar to that of ring-expanded oxindole-3-acetic acid (OxIAA) on high performance liquid chromatography. The identity of the indolic moiety of these conjugates as OxIAA was further confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Chromatography of the two OxIAA conjugates on a calibrated Bio-Gel P-2 column indicated that their molecular weights are about 1200 and 1000. Aspartic acid and glutamic acid were the major amino acids detected in acid hydrolysates of the two conjugates. Increasing the concentration of IAA in the incubation medium resulted in an increase in the formation of indole-3-acetylaspartic acid (IAAsp) with a concomitant decrease in the formation of the two OxIAA conjugates. Feeding experiments with labeled IAAsp and OxIAA showed that IAAsp and not OxIAA is the precursor of these conjugates. The data obtained indicate that exogenous IAA is converted in tomato pericarp tissue to high molecular weight conjugates, presumably peptides, of OxIAA via the oxidation of IAAsp. The oxidation of IAAsp seems to be a rate-limiting step in the formation of these conjugates from exogenous IAA.     

Induced parthenocarpy—a way of changing the levels of endogenous hormones in tomato fruits (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) 1. Extractable hormones

Ethylene, indol-3-acetic acid (IAA), gibberellin-like substances (GAs) and abscisic acid (ABA) were analysed in extracts from normal, seed-containing and parthenocarpic tomato fruits throughout fruit development. Parthenocarpic fruit growth was induced with an auxin (4-CPA), morphactin (CME) or gibberellic acid (GA₃) and compared with that of pollinated control fruits. Fruit growth was only affected by the treatment with GA₃, decreasing size and fresh weight by 60%. The peak sequence of hormones during fruit development was ethylene-GAs-IAA-ABA. Seeded fruits contained the highest levels of IAA and ABA but the lowest levels of GAs. Also, in seeded fruits, a high proportion of IAA and ABA was found in the seeds whereas this was not the case for GAs.Hormone levels of tomato fruits may be successfully, easily and reproducibly altered by inducing parthenocarpic fruit growth and thus eliminating development of seeds which are a major source of hormone synthesis. In spite of markedly changed hormone levels, there was no obvious relationship between fruit growth and extractable hormones per se. However, the results indicate that a high ratio of GAs: auxins is unfavourable for growth of tomato fruits.     

Rapid effects of nitrogen form on leaf morphogenesis in tobacco

Ammonium (NH4+) instead of nitrate (NO3-) as the nitrogen (N) source for tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) cultivated in a pH-buffered nutrient solution resulted in decreased shoot and root biomass. Reduction of shoot fresh weight was mainly related to inhibition of leaf growth, which was already detectable after short-term NH4+ treatments of 24 h, and even at a moderate concentration level of 2 mM. Microscopic analysis of the epidermis of fully expanded leaves revealed a decrease in cell number (50%) and in cell size (30%) indicating that both cell division and cell elongation were affected by NH4+ application. Changes in various physiological parameters known to be associated with NH4(+)-induced growth depression were examined both in long-term and short-term experiments: the concentrations of total N, soluble sugars and starch as well as the osmotic potential, the apparent hydraulic conductivity and the rate of water uptake were not reduced by NH4+ treatments (duration 1-12 d), suggesting that leaf growth was neither limited by the availability of N and carbohydrates, nor by a lack of osmotica or water supply. Although the concentration of K+ in leaf press sap declined in expanding leaves by approximately 15% in response to NH4+ nutrition, limitation of mineral nutrients seems to be unlikely in view of the fast response of leaf growth at 24 h after the start of the NH4+ treatment. No inhibitory effects were observed when NH4+ and NO3- were applied simultaneously (each 1 mM) resulting in a NO3-/NH4+ net uptake ratio of 6:4. These findings suggest that the rapid inhibition of leaf growth was not primarily related to NH4+ toxicity, but to the lack of NO3(-)-supply. Growth inhibition of plants fed solely with NH4+ was associated with a 60% reduction of the zeatine + zeatine riboside (Z + ZR) cytokinin fraction in the xylem sap after 24 h. Furthermore Z + ZR levels declined to almost zero within the next 4 d after start of the NH4+ treatment. In contrast, the concentrations of the putative Z + ZR precursors isopentenyl-adenine and isopentenyl-adenosine (i-Ade + i-Ado) were not affected by NH4+ application. Since cytokinins are involved in the regulation of both cell division and cell elongation, it seems likely that the presence of NO3- is required to maintain biosynthesis and/or root to shoot transfer of cytokinins at a level that is sufficient to mediate normal leaf morphogenesis.     

Abscission and thinning of young fruit and thier regulation by plant hormones and bioregulators

Natural abscission of young fruit and its regulation by plant hormones isconsidered and compared to the generally accepted model of senescencetriggered abscission of, for example, leaves or mature fruit. It isconcluded that abscission of young fruit cannot be explained by this model.Alternatively, it is suggested that the senescence triggered initial step inthe classical abscission model should be replaced by a correlativelytriggered step. Polar basipetal IAA transport with its autostimulation andautoinhibition components is the main regulating signal in this correlativeacting system and replaces ethylene as the initial driving force from thesenescence triggered model.Results supporting this model are presented and tested against existingresults from the literature. Finally, this hypothesis is tested as a possibleexplanation of the mode of action of some thinning chemicals orbioregulators. It is speculated how a thinning chemical should be designedto function in a more reliable way, at least as far as its interference with the endogenous hormone system is concerned.     

Basipetal auxin versus acropetal cytokinin transport,and their interaction with NO3 fertilisation in cotyledon senescence and sink:source relationships in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.)

The paramount role of cytokinins (CKs) in initiation, as well as prevention, of senescence is well established. In recent years, experimental methods have become available to raise and lower the CK concentration and experimentally manipulate senescence. Decapitating the apical shoot and adding the synthetic auxin naphthylacetic acid to the cut stem reduced endogenous CKs to low levels. Conversely, if no auxin was applied, xylem and leaf CK levels increased dramatically, indicating that basipolar auxin transport is a key determinant in the synthesis of CKs and is potentially more important than NO₃. Manipulating the concentration of applied NO₃ caused considerable variation in leaf CK levels and concomitant changes in senescence. These and other results suggest that the frequently discussed decrease in nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) may be more highly regulated by CKs than by NO₃. Analysis of the re‐metabolisation and re‐allocation of chlorophyll, proteins, amino acids and starch in three different cucumber cultivars indirectly showed that these metabolites were significantly affected by the concentration of CKs in the leaves. Further research in this area may allow leaf senescence and plant yield to be more efficiently regulated by manipulating CKs and/or basipolar auxin transport instead of nitrate.