Aphid Herbivory Drives Asymmetry in Carbon for Nutrient Exchange between Plants and an Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus

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Hypersensitive response of wheat to the Hessian fly

Hessian flyMayetiola destructor (Say) larvae are able to obtain food from their host plant without inflicting mechanical damage to the plant surface, apparently by secreting substances which elicit release of nutrients from plant cells surrounding the feeding site. Cells of fully susceptible plants retain their normal appearances, while in resistant plants extensive areas of cellular collapse occur. These responses indicate that hypersensitivity is the basis of wheat's resistance to the Hessian fly. The fly's feeding mechanism more closely resembles that of a pathogen than of a phytophagous insect; correspondingly, both the genetic relationship and resistance mechanism of the host plant to the parasite are of the sorts commonly associated with bacterial and fungal pathogens.     

The cellular pathway of photosynthate transfer in the developing wheat grain. II. A structural analysis and histochemical studies of the pathway from the crease phloem to the endosperm cavity

In the developing wheat grain, photosynthate is transferred longitudinally along the crease phloem and then laterally into the endosperm cavity through the crease vascular parenchyma, pigment strand and nucellar projection. In order to clarify this cellular pathway of photosynthate unloading, and hence the controlling mechanism of grain filling, the potential for symplastic and apoplastic transfer was examined through structural and histochemical studies on these tissue types. It was found that cells in the crease region from the phloem to the nucellar projection are interconnected by numerous plasmodesmata and have dense cytoplasm with abundant mitochondria. Histochemical studies confirmed that, at the stage of grain development studied, an apoplastic barrier exists in the cell walls of the pigment strand. This barrier is composed of lignin, phenolics and suberin. The potential capacity for symplastic transfer, determined by measuring plasmodesmatal frequencies and computing potential sucrose fluxes through these plasmodesmata, indicated that there is sufficient plasmodesmatal cross-sectional area to support symplastic unloading of photosynthate at the rate required for normal grain growth. The potential capacity for membrane transport of sucrose to the apoplast was assessed by measuring plasma membrane surface areas of the various cell types and computing potential plasma membrane fluxes of sucrose. These fluxes indicated that the combined plasma membrane surface areas of the sieve element–companion cell (se–cc) complexes, vascular parenchyma and pigment strand are not sufficient to allow sucrose transfer to the apoplast at the observed rates. In contrast, the wall ingrowths of the transfer cells in the nucellar projection amplify the membrane surface area up to 22-fold, supporting the observed rates of sucrose transfer into the endosperm cavity. We conclude that photosynthate moves via the symplast from the se–cc complexes to the nucellar projection transfer cells, from where it is transferred across the plasma membrane into the endosperm cavity. The apoplastic barrier in the pigment strand is considered to restrict solute movement to the symplast and block apoplastic solute exchange between maternal and embryonic tissues. The implications of this cellular pathway in relation to the control of photosynthate transfer in the developing grain are discussed.     

Level ofFusarium infection in wheat spikelets related to location and number of inoculated spores

The flowering time is the most susceptible period for primary infection of wheat heads byFusarium spp. During this period spores can be deposited into the opened wheat florets where they may later cause infections. We quantitatively explored the relationship between variables related to the flowering process and the infection level byFusarium graminearum in single spikelets. We imitated open (chasmogamous) and closed (cleistogamous) flowering by injecting well-defined amounts of spores into and between wheat florets. Applying the spores between the florets resulted in weaker disease symptoms and significantly lower amounts ofFusarium mycotoxins. With larger numbers of spores, the disease symptoms became more pronounced and the mycotoxin amounts per spikelet increased significantly. Our results indicate that the probability of primary infection is approximately proportional to the number of spores reaching the open florets during the flowering process. The breeding of wheat lines which flower partially or completely cleistogamously might reduce theFusarium susceptibility in wheat.     

Hibernation behavior of Rana lessonae and R. esculenta in their natural habitat

We studied the hibernation behavior of the water frog Rana lessonae and its hybridogenetic associate R. esculenta in their natural habitat during three successive winters. Animals caught in pitfall traps at a fenced pond were individually marked with PIT tags and some (n=36) were additionally equipped with radio transmitters. Of the animals caught, 85% left the fenced pond for hibernation. More R. esculenta remained inside the fenced area compared to R. lessonae. R. lessonae emigrated earlier in autumn and came back later in spring than R. esculenta, but the distance to their hibernation sites did not differ. Both species left the fenced pond earlier in the year when ambient temperatures were lower. All radio-tracked animals hibernated in woodland, 3–7 cm below the surface in soil, under moss, fallen leaves or small branches. Soil temperatures at the actual hibernation sites were significantly higher than at randomly chosen control sites. A surprising finding was that most frogs changed their hibernation sites during winter, and often more than once. Movements were more frequent in the warmer first half of the winter than in the cooler second half, but some animals were active even on days with mean temperatures below 1°C. These results show that both species do not spend the whole winter torpid in one particular hibernation site but move around, especially at higher temperatures. Most of the animals lost weight during the winter, and the weight loss was greater in females than in males and higher in warm than in cold winters. To what extent weight loss and survival is influenced by the chosen hibernation sites and the amount of movement during winter, and whether this contributes to the differences in species and sex ratios found in mixed populations, needs more investigation. Received: 4 August 1999 / Accepted: 15 November 1999     

The critical weed-free period in organically-grown winter wheat

Two experiments were conducted in central southern England between September 1994 and August 1996 to identify the critical weed-free period in organically grown winter wheat (Triticum aestivum, cv. Mercia). In competition with a mixed weed infestation of predominately Alopecurus myosuroides and Tripleurospermum inodorum it was found that wheat yield decreased as the duration of the weed-infested period increased and that the crop needed to be kept free of weeds from sowing in order to completely avoid any yield loss. Also, weeds emerging in the wheat crop (predominately T. inodorum) during the growing season had a significant and detrimental effect on yield. The existence of the critical period, therefore, depends on the imposition of an acceptable yield loss. If a 5% yield loss gives a marginal benefit compared with the cost of weed control, the critical period will begin at 506°C days after sowing (November) and end at 1023°C days after sowing (February). This information could be used by farmers to target mechanical weeding operations to control weeds at a time that will have maximum benefit to the crop.     

The influence of reduced photorespiration on long-term growth and development of wheat

The long-term role of photorespiration was investigated by comparing growth, development, gas exchange characteristics and mineral nutrition of a wheat crop ( Triticum aestivum L. cv. Courtot) cultivated in a culture chamber during a life cycle, either in 4% O₂ or in normal O₂ Low O₂ pressure reduced photorespiration, but CO₂ was controlled so that net photosynthesis remained the same as in the control crop. The growth and development of the low O₂ crop was slowed down. Ear appearance was 16 days late, but the rate of tillering was the same as in the control and was maintained longer so that the final number of tillers was doubled. Pigment, ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.39) and soluble sugar contents were similar. The response of photosynthesis to CO₂ and O₂ was not appreciably changed by the low O₂ treatment. There was almost no seed formation, and the senescence of the leaves was delayed. It appears that in non-stress conditions most of the photorespiration can be suppressed without damage to the photosynthetic apparatus. Retardation of development and inhibition of reproduction are likely due to other effects of O₂.     

Headgroup dynamics of an integral membrane glycoprotein.

Glycophorin, an integral membrane glycoprotein known to be a receptor for several lectins, has been spin labelled specifically on headgroup terminal sugars. The labelled derivative has been studied in solution and also in various model membranes in an attempt to determine the factors which control headgroup dynamics. Under conditions which mimic those in a living cell the oligosaccharide chains show a uniform, relatively high freedom of motion, with individual sugar correlation times on the order of 6 × 10^?10 sec to 8 × 10^?10 sec depending upon the extent of glycoprotein headgroup involvement with other glycocalyx components. They exhibit no detectable occupancy of lipid or protein hydrophobic domains. Oligosaccharide dynamics are insensitive to factors which act upon that portion of the polypeptide backbone which inserts into the membrane, however a specific recognition event markedly reduces terminal sugar mobility.     

Chlorophyll b accumulation and grana formation in low intensities of red light

Abstract When dark grown leaves of wheat (Triticum aesivum L.) were given a brief irradiation, there was an immediate onset of chlorophyll (Chl) b synthesis in the dark. This synthesis led to a rather slow accumulation of Chl b, which ceased when the Chl b/Chl a ratio had reached a value of about 0.1. The Chl b synthesis occurred also when the seedlings were treated with the herbicide SAN 9789. Leaves grown under different intensities of red light accumulated Chl b and Chl a, resulting in a ratio Chl b/Chl a which depended on the light intensity. If the light intensity was low, Chl a accumulated to a level about ten times the level of PChlide of the dark grown leaves. This occurred without any increase in the Chl b/Chl a ratio. There was no difference between SAN 9789-treated seedlings and water controls in this respect. Above a certain threshold of irradiance, the Chl b/Chl a ratio in the control leaves increased rapidly with the irradiation intensity. The increase in Chl b/Chl a ratio coincided with formation of grana in the plastids. This increase was not found and grana formation was completely absent in the seedlings treated with SAN 9789. The possibility of two different stages in the Chl b synthesis is discussed.