Growth inhibition induced by transforming growth factor-β1 in human oral squamous cell carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a world-wide health problem and its incidence accounts for 1.9–3.5% of all malignant tumors. Transforming growth factor beta/Smads (TGF-β/Smads) signaling pathway plays an important role in oncogenesis, but its function and molecular mechanisms in OSCC remain unclear. Expression of transforming growth factor-β receptor type II (TβRII) and Smad4 was studied by immunohistochemistry in 108 OSCC patients and 10 normal controls. Function and molecular mechanisms of TGF-β/Smads signaling pathway was then investigated in two human tongue squamous carcinoma cell lines with high and low metastasis (Tb and Tca8113) by RT-PCR, Western Blot, immunofluorescence, cell growth curve and flow cytometry (FCM), respectively. TβRII and Smad4 were significantly down-regulated in tumor tissues (with or without lymph node metastasis) compared to normal oral epithelium tissues (P < 0.05). TGF-β1 induced arrest of the cell cycle rather than cell death in Tca8113 and Tb cells, and this influence was mediated by the increasing the expression and changing the location of its downstream components of TGF-β1/Smads signaling pathway. TGF-β1 rapidly increased the expression of p15 and p21 in both Tca8113 and Tb cells. TGF-β1 did not increase p27 expression in Tca8113 cells, but p27 expression was increased in Tb cells. These indicated that TGF-β1 induced G₁ arrest of cell cycle through a different regulating pathway in Tb cells compared with Tca8113 cells. Thus, we conclude that TGF-β/Smads signaling pathway play a important role on cell growth and metastasis potential in OSCC. Xiumei Wang, Wenjing Sun, and Jing Bai contributed equally to this paper.     

Rapamycin induces the TGFβ1/Smad signaling cascade in renal mesangial cells upstream of mTOR

The mTOR kinase inhibitor rapamycin (sirolimus) is a drug with potent immunosuppressive and antiproliferative properties. We found that rapamycin induces the TGFβ/Smad signaling cascade in rat mesangial cells (MC) as depicted by the nuclear translocation of phospho-Smads 2, -3 and Smad-4, respectively. Concomitantly, rapamycin increases the nuclear DNA binding of receptor (R)- and co-Smad proteins to a cognate Smad-binding element (SBE) which in turn causes an increase in profibrotic gene expression as exemplified by the connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1). Using small interfering (si)RNA we demonstrate that Smad 2/3 activation by rapamycin depends on its endogenous receptor FK binding protein 12 (FKBP12). Mechanistically, Smad induction by rapamycin is initiated by an increase in active TGFβ₁ as shown by ELISA and by the inhibitory effects of a neutralizing TGFβ antibody. Using an activin receptor-like kinase (ALK)-5 inhibitor and by siRNA against the TGFβ type II receptor (TGFβ-RII) we furthermore demonstrate a functional involvement of both types of TGFβ receptors. However, rapamycin did not compete with TGFβ for TGFβ-receptor binding as found in radioligand-binding assay. Besides SB203580, a specific inhibitor of the p38 MAPK, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) and a cell-permeable superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimetic strongly abrogated the stimulatory effects of rapamycin on Smad 2 and 3 phosphorylation. Furthermore, the rapid increase in dichlorofluorescein (DCF) formation implies that rapamycin mainly acts through ROS. In conclusion, activation of the profibrotic TGFβ/Smad signaling cascade accompanies the immunosuppressive and antiproliferative actions of rapamycin.     

肝纤维化中肌成纤维细胞的作用及TGF-β/Smads通路的研究进展

肌成纤维细胞(myofibrobasts)是一种多起源的异质性细胞,在肝纤维化过程和愈伤反应(wound-healing response)中扮演重要角色.TGF-β /Smads通路作为体内重要的信号调节通路,对肝纤维化过程具有关键的调节作用,现已成为国内外近年来的研究热点.对肌成纤维细胞的来源以及影响其分化的因素,TGF-β /Smads通路与调控的研究进展,以及肝纤维化的治疗进行了较为全面的综述,并就肝纤维化今后研究的主要发展方向进行了展望.     

BMP Signaling and Podocyte Markers Are Decreased in Human Diabetic Nephropathy in Association With CTGF Overexpression

Diabetic nephropathy is characterized by decreased expression of bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) and decreased podocyte number and differentiation. Extracellular antagonists such as connective tissue growth factor (CTGF; CCN-2) and sclerostin domain-containing-1 (SOSTDC1; USAG-1) are important determinants of BMP signaling activity in glomeruli. We studied BMP signaling activity in glomeruli from diabetic patients and non-diabetic individuals and from control and diabetic CTGF^+/+ and CTGF^+/− mice. BMP signaling activity was visualized by phosphorylated Smad1, -5, and -8 (pSmad1/5/8) immunostaining, and related to expression of CTGF, SOSTDC1, and the podocyte differentiation markers WT1, synaptopodin, and nephrin. In control and diabetic glomeruli, pSmad1/5/8 was mainly localized in podocytes, but both number of positive cells and staining intensity were decreased in diabetes. Nephrin and synaptopodin were decreased in diabetic glomeruli. Decrease of pSmad1/5/8 was only partially explained by decrease in podocyte number. SOSTDC1 and CTGF were expressed exclusively in podocytes. In diabetic glomeruli, SOSTDC1 decreased in parallel with podocyte number, whereas CTGF was strongly increased. In diabetic CTGF^+/− mice, pSmad1/5/8 was preserved, compared with diabetic CTGF^+/+ mice. In conclusion, in human diabetic nephropathy, BMP signaling activity is diminished, together with reduction of podocyte markers. This might relate to concomitant overexpression of CTGF but not SOSTDC1. (J Histochem Cytochem 57:623–631, 2009)     

益气温阳活血化痰方对低氧高二氧化碳性肺动脉高压的作用及其机制

目的：探讨益气温阳活血化痰方（YWHHF）经BMP-7/Smads通路抑制内皮-间质转分化（EndoMT）,从而缓解低氧高二氧化碳性大鼠肺动脉压力的机制。方法：雄性健康清洁级SD大鼠50只,体重（180~220） g,随机分为5组（n=10）：常氧组（N）、低氧高二氧化碳组（HH）、YWHHF高剂量组（YH）、中剂量组（YM）、低剂量组（YL）。N组在常氧环境下饲养,其余四组在低氧高二氧化碳（9%~11% O₂、5%~6% CO₂）环境下饲养4周,8 h/日,每周6 d。YH、YM、YL组大鼠灌胃不同浓度的益气温阳活血化痰方（3 ml/kg）,浓度分别为0.6、0.3和0.15 g/kg,HH组灌胃等体积生理盐水。4周后检测大鼠肺动脉平均压,肺灌流后取右心室游离壁及左心室加心室间隔测定右心室肥大指数。电镜观察肺超微结构变化,免疫荧光观察肺动脉结构变化,RT-PCR检测α-SMA、CD31、BMP-7、Smad1/5/8的mRNA水平,Western blot检测α-SMA、CD31、BMP-7、p-Smad1/5/8和Smad1/5/8的蛋白质水平。结果：与N组比,其余四组平均肺动脉压、右心室肥大指数均增大,镜下观察见肺有明显损伤,α-SMA mRNA及蛋白质表达升高,CD31、BMP-7、Smad1/5/8的mRNA水平降低,CD31、BMP-7、p-Smad1/5/8的蛋白质水平亦降低（P< 0.05）;与HH组比,中药组以上变化均有所减轻（P<0.05）。结论：YWHHF通过抑制EndoMT从而缓解肺动脉高压,其机制可能与促进BMP-7/Smads通路的表达有关。     

Smad7 Inhibits Mesoderm Formation and Promotes Neural Cell Fate inXenopusEmbryos

We report the isolation and characterization of a new inhibitory Smad inXenopus,which we have designated asXenopusSmad7. Smad7 is present at fairly constant levels throughout early development and at blastula stages enriched in the ventral side of the animal hemisphere. The induction of mesoderm by TGF-β-like signals is mediated by receptor ALK-4 and we show that Smad7 blocks signaling of ALK-4 in a graded fashion: lower levels of Smad7 block activation of dorsal mesoderm genes and higher levels block all mesoderm genes expression. Smad7 is able to directly activate neural markers in explants in the absence of mesoderm or endoderm. This neural-inducing activity of Smad7 may be due to inhibition of BMP-4 signaling because Smad7 can also block BMP-4-mediated mesoderm induction. Thus, Smad7 acts as a potent inhibitor of mesoderm formation and also activates the default neural induction pathway.     

Smurf E3 ubiquitin ligases at the cross roads of oncogenesis and tumor suppression

Smad ubiquitin regulatory factors (Smurfs) belong to the HECT- family of E3 ubiquitin ligases and comprise mainly of two members, Smurf1 and Smurf2. Initially, Smurfs have been implicated in determining the competence of cells to respond to TGF-β/BMP signaling pathway. Nevertheless, the intrinsic catalytic activity has extended the repertoire of Smurf substrates beyond the TGF-β/BMP super family expanding its realm further to epigenetic modifications of histones governing the chromatin landscape. Through regulation of a large number of proteins in multiple cellular compartments, Smurfs regulate diverse cellular processes, including cell-cycle progression, cell proliferation, differentiation, DNA damage response, maintenance of genomic stability, and metastasis. As the genomic ablation of Smurfs leads to global changes in histone modifications and predisposition to a wide spectrum of tumors, Smurfs are also considered to have a novel tumor suppressor function. This review focuses on regulation network and biological functions of Smurfs in connection with its role in cancer progression. By providing a portrait of their protein targets, we intend to link the substrate specificity of Smurfs with their contribution to tumorigenesis. Since the regulation and biological functions of Smurfs are quite complex, understanding the oncogenic potential of these E3 ubiquitin ligases may facilitate the development of mechanism-based drugs in cancer treatment.