Pollination ofOpunta basilaris andO. littoralis

The flowers ofOpuntia basilaris andO. littoralis in southern California are visited commonly by beetles(Carpophilus, Trichochrous) and bees (especially anthophorids, megachilids, and halictids), but are pollinated mainly by the bees. This agrees with observations presented in the previous papers in this series for other cactus species in Arizona and Texas. The available evidence indicates that the large, diurnal, cup-shaped flowers in cacti of the American Southwest are primarily bee-pollinated. Our earlier view that theseOpuntia flowers are also pollinated to a significant extent bynitidulid andmelyrid beetles must be modified now in the light of further evidence. Some pollination probably is carried out by small beetles, but it probably represents only a small proportion of the total pollination.Pollination of North American Cacti, III.—See alsoGrant & Grant (1979) andGrant & al. (1979).     

Evolution, origin and age of lineages in the Californian and Mediterranean floras

This paper addresses some of the conceptual issues involved in the analysis of the age and origin of mediterranean‐climate plant taxa, paying particular attention to three topics: (1) the importance of an explicit time frame in the definition of biogeographical origins, (2) the distinction between the age of traits and the age of taxa, and (3) the idea of mediterranean‐type ecosystems as environmental islands. (1) In California, recent analyses demonstrate that the diversity of species derived from different biogeographical origins is significantly correlated with temperature and precipitation gradients. These patterns support the hypothesis that niche conservatism is an important factor structuring modern diversity gradients. However, depending on how far back in time one looks, a species may be assigned to different origins; future discussions of biogeographical origins need to address the appropriate time frame for analysis. (2) Past research has demonstrated distinctive trait syndromes among woody plants of the Mediterranean, Chile, California and Mexico, and proposed that the syndromes are associated with lineages of different age in these floras. Reanalysis of individual traits demonstrates greater variability among regions than previously reported. The classification of plants into ‘old’ and ‘new’ genera is re‐evaluated, and it is suggested that greater attention be paid to the age of traits, rather than to the age of taxa, especially at an arbitrary rank such as genus. (3) The idea of mediterranean‐climate regions as ‘climatic islands’ is examined. Space–time diagrams of climate enable one to view the emergence of distinctive climatic regions in a continental context. The terms ‘synclimatic’ and ‘anticlimatic’ are proposed, referring to migration routes that parallel climate contours in space and time versus those that cross contours (including the case of geographic stasis in the face of climate change), respectively. Mediterranean‐climate regions have served as important case studies in plant ecology and evolution, and merit continued close examination in the light of continued advances in phylogenetics and palaeoecology.     

The messenger matters: Pollinator functional group influences mating system dynamics

The incredible diversity of plant mating systems has fuelled research in evolutionary biology for over a century. Currently, there is broad concern about the impact of rapidly changing pollinator communities on plant populations. Very few studies, however, examine patterns and mechanisms associated with multiple paternity from cross‐pollen loads. Often, foraging pollinators collect a mixed pollen load that may result in the deposition of pollen from different sires to receptive stigmas. Coincident deposition of self‐ and cross‐pollen leads to interesting mating system dynamics and has been investigated in numerous species. But, mixed pollen loads often consist of a diversity of cross‐pollen and result in multiple sires of seeds within a fruit. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Rhodes, Fant, and Skogen ( 2017 ) examine how pollinator identity and spatial isolation influence multiple paternity within fruits of a self‐incompatible evening primrose. The authors demonstrate that pollen pool diversity varies between two pollinator types, hawkmoths and diurnal solitary bees. Further, progeny from more isolated plants were less likely to have multiple sires regardless of the pollinator type. Moving forward, studies of mating system dynamics should consider the implications of multiple paternity and move beyond the self‐ and cross‐pollination paradigm. Rhodes et al. ( 2017 ) demonstrate the importance of understanding the roles that functionally diverse pollinators play in mating system dynamics.     

Morphological specialization of heterantherous Rhynchanthera grandiflora (Melastomataceae) accommodates pollinator diversity

• The tropical Melastomataceae are characterized by poricidal anthers which constitute a floral filter selecting for buzz‐pollinating bees. Stamens are often dimorphic, sometimes with discernible feeding and pollinating functions. Rhynchanthera grandiflora produces nectarless flowers with four short stamens and one long stamen; all anthers feature a narrow elongation with an upwards facing pore.
• We tested pollen transfer by diverse foraging bees and viability of pollen from both stamen types. The impact of anther morphology on pollen release direction and scattering angle was studied to determine the plant's reproductive strategy.
• Medium‐sized to large bees sonicated flowers in a specific position, and the probability of pollen transfer correlated with bee size even among these legitimate visitors. Small bees acted as pollen thieves or robbers. Anther rostrum and pore morphology serve to direct and focus the pollen jet released by floral sonication towards the pollinator's body. Resulting from the ventral and dorsal positioning of the short and long stamens, respectively, the pollinator's body was widely covered with pollen. This improves the plant's chances of outcrossing, irrespective of which bee body part contacts the stigma. Consequently, R. grandiflora is also able to employ bee species of various sizes as pollen vectors.
• The strategy of spreading pollen all over the pollinator's body is rather cost‐intensive but counterbalanced by ensuring that most of the released pollen is in fact transferred to the bee. Thus, flowers of R. grandiflora illustrate how specialized morphology may serve to improve pollination by a functional group of pollinators.

     

The effectiveness of flower strips and hedgerows on pest control,pollination services and crop yield: a quantitative synthesis

Floral plantings are promoted to foster ecological intensification of agriculture through provisioning of ecosystem services. However, a comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of different floral plantings, their characteristics and consequences for crop yield is lacking. Here we quantified the impacts of flower strips and hedgerows on pest control (18 studies) and pollination services (17 studies) in adjacent crops in North America, Europe and New Zealand. Flower strips, but not hedgerows, enhanced pest control services in adjacent fields by 16% on average. However, effects on crop pollination and yield were more variable. Our synthesis identifies several important drivers of variability in effectiveness of plantings: pollination services declined exponentially with distance from plantings, and perennial and older flower strips with higher flowering plant diversity enhanced pollination more effectively. These findings provide promising pathways to optimise floral plantings to more effectively contribute to ecosystem service delivery and ecological intensification of agriculture in the future.     

Deceptive pollination of Calanthe by skippers that commonly act as nectar thieves

Flowers have developed different strategies to attract pollinators through visual or olfactory signals. Most flowers offer pollinators a reward (e.g. nectar and pollen) for the pollination service. However, one‐third of Orchidaceae have been shown not to provide a reward. Calanthe are terrestrial orchids distributed throughout China, Nepal, Japan and tropical Asia. Despite its high diversity, the pollination biology of Calanthe remains largely unknown, even though it is an important aspect of plant conservation. In the study, through field surveying, there were three Hesperiidae butterflies pollinating two species of Calanthe and the pollination behavior differed between the two species of Calanthe, which might lead to different fruit setting rates. There was no nectar in the flowers of the two species, indicating deceptive pollination. Using a glass cylinder experiment, it was deduced that the two species of Calanthe were most likely to attract pollinators by generalized food deception. Interestingly, Hesperiidae butterflies were traditionally thought to be nectar thieves and generally do not transmit pollinia. However, our findings showed that, in this case, the thieves were deceived by the plants and pollinated them for free.     

狭叶坡垒传粉生物学初探

狭叶坡垒(Hopea chinensis)为常绿乔木,是我国热带季雨林的代表树种之一。它树型优美,具一定的耐寒性,是我国珍稀濒危保护植物。为阐明其传粉生物学特征和迁地保护的繁殖潜力,该文在引种地桂林植物园对狭叶坡垒的开花物候、花尺寸和花气味进行了观察和测量,运用杂交指数(OCI)、花粉胚珠比(P/O)、花粉活力、柱头活性检测和人工自交等方法对其繁育系统进行了检测,观察了访花昆虫并检验了其传粉效率,通过人工异交检验了繁殖潜力和可能的传粉限制。结果表明:(1)桂林植物园内狭叶坡垒的花期为7月底到9月底,持续60 d左右,一个花序花期约12 d,单花期约3 d,花朵开放时间为17:00—18:45。(2)雌雄同熟,雌蕊空间位置高于雄蕊,高花粉活力和高柱头可授性出现时间基本一致。(3)OCI 等于4,P/O为10 788±984。(4)无自动自花授粉能力且自交不亲和,自然条件下和异交授粉能坐果且坐果率无显著差异。(5)蕈蚊是狭叶坡垒唯一的传粉者。(6)主要花香成分为β-榄香烯、(E)-7,11-二甲基-3-亚甲基-1,6,10-十二碳三烯和1-石竹烯。综上所述,狭叶坡垒繁育系统为异交,在迁地保护地需要蕈蚊作为传粉者,能坐果并得到成熟种子,不存在授粉限制。     

Darwin's vexing contrivance: a new hypothesis for why some flowers have two kinds of anther

Heteranthery, the presence of two or more anther types in the same flower, is taxonomically widespread among bee-pollinated angiosperms, yet has puzzled botanists since Darwin. We test two competing hypotheses for its evolution: the long-standing ‘division of labour'' hypothesis, which posits that some anthers are specialized as food rewards for bees whereas others are specialized for surreptitious pollination, and our new hypothesis that heteranthery is a way to gradually release pollen that maximizes pollen delivery. We examine the evolution of heteranthery and associated traits across the genus Clarkia (Onagraceae) and study plant–pollinator interactions in two heterantherous Clarkia species. Across species, heteranthery is associated with bee pollination, delayed dehiscence and colour crypsis of one anther whorl, and movement of that anther whorl upon dehiscence. Our mechanistic studies in heterantherous species show that bees notice, forage on and export pollen from each anther whorl when it is dehiscing, and that heteranthery promotes pollen export. We find no support for division of labour, but multifarious evidence that heteranthery is a mechanism for gradual pollen presentation that probably evolved through indirect male–male competition for siring success.     

痛泻要方对“肝气乘脾”泄泻小鼠肠黏膜及肠内容物消化酶活性的影响

目的探讨痛泻要方对"肝气乘脾"泄泻小鼠肠道酶活性的影响。方法采用"番泻叶-离心管束缚夹尾法"进行"肝气乘脾"泄泻造模,造模成功后以痛泻要方治疗,造模和治疗后分别分析小鼠肠道酶活性。结果造模后,模型组小鼠肠道内容物的淀粉酶活性显著降低(t=4.007,P=0.015),纤维素酶、蛋白酶、蔗糖酶活性下降不显著。模型组小鼠肠黏膜蛋白酶、淀粉酶、蔗糖酶活性显著下降(t_蛋=5.652,P=0.005;Z_淀=-1.964,P=0.050;t_蔗=4.737,P=0.009)。痛泻要方治疗后,中药干预组小鼠肠道内容物蛋白酶、纤维素酶、乳糖酶和蔗糖酶活性变化不显著;自然恢复组的淀粉酶活性显著高于正常组(t=-7.497,P=0.002)。中药干预组小鼠肠道前段黏膜蛋白酶、乳糖酶、淀粉酶、蔗糖酶活性恢复不显著;中药干预组小鼠肠道黏膜中段乳糖酶、蔗糖酶活性显著低于自然恢复组(t_乳=4.074,P=0.013;t_蔗=8.072,P0.001),而蛋白酶、淀粉酶及纤维素酶活性均高于自然恢复组;中药干预组小鼠肠道后段黏膜乳糖酶、蔗糖酶及淀粉酶活性显著高于正常组(t_乳=-7.962,P0.001;t_蔗=-15.921,P0.001;Z_淀=6.489,P=0.034),蛋白酶与纤维素酶活性均有所升高。结论 "肝气乘脾"泄泻肠道内容物及黏膜淀粉酶活性显著降低,痛泻要方对"肝气乘脾"泄泻小鼠肠黏膜乳糖酶、蔗糖酶及淀粉酶活性作用显著。     

软枣猕猴桃控制授粉对果实和种子的影响

为了研究软枣猕猴桃授粉规律,以11年生软枣猕猴桃紫果3号为试验材料,设置剪留花柱数量为0、2、5、8、11、14、17和23(全留对照组)共8个处理。人工授粉,收获后调查测定其单果重、坐果率、果型指数、果实可溶性固形物含量和果实内含种子数量。结果表明:随着授粉柱头数的增加,单果重等主要指标相应增加;当授粉柱头数增至为8时,其果型指数和果实可溶性固形物含量与对照全留柱头23相比差异不明显;当授粉柱头数增至为11时,其单果重、坐果率和果实内含种子数量与对照全留柱头23相比差异不明显。据此软枣猕猴桃充分授粉的数量级指标为11,当授粉柱头数小于11时,产量降低、品质下降;当授粉柱头大于11时,浪费花粉。生产上可利用猕猴桃精准充分授粉技术,节约使用花粉或减少果园雄株数量,以提高生产效率。