Homogenous assays for Escherichia coli DnaB-stimulated DnaG primase and DnaB helicase and their use in screening for chemical inhibitors

Escherichia coli DnaG primase is a single-stranded DNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Primase catalyzes the synthesis of a short RNA primer to initiate DNA replication at the origin and to initiate Okazaki fragment synthesis for synthesis of the lagging strand. Primase activity is greatly stimulated through its interaction with DnaB helicase. Here we report a 96-well homogeneous scintillation proximity assay (SPA) for the study of DnaB-stimulated E. coli primase activity and the identification of E. coli primase inhibitors. The assay uses an adaptation of the general priming reaction by employing DnaG primase, DnaB helicase, and ribonucleotidetriphosphates (incorporation of [(3)H]CTP) for in vitro primer synthesis on single-stranded oligonucleotide and M13mp18 DNA templates. The primase product is captured by polyvinyl toluene-polyethyleneimine-coated SPA beads and quantified by counting by beta-scintography. In the absence of helicase as a cofactor, primer synthesis is reduced by 85%. The primase assay was used for screening libraries of compounds previously identified as possessing antimicrobial activities. Primase inhibitory compounds were then classified as direct primase inhibitors or mixed primase/helicase inhibitors by further evaluation in a specific assay for DnaB helicase activity. By this approach, specific primase inhibitors could be identified.     

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator interacts with and regulates the activity of the HCO3- salvage transporter human Na+-HCO3- cotransport isoform 3

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) regulates both HCO(3)(-) secretion and HCO(3)(-) salvage in secretory epithelia. At least two luminal transporters mediate HCO(3)(-) salvage, the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger (NHE3) and the Na(+)-HCO(3)(-) cotransport (NBC3). In a previous work, we show that CFTR interacts with NHE3 to regulate its activity (Ahn, W., Kim, K. W., Lee, J. A., Kim, J. Y., Choi, J. Y., Moe, O. M., Milgram, S. L., Muallem, S., and Lee, M. G. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 17236-17243). In this work, we report that transient or stable expression of human NBC3 (hNBC3) in HEK cells resulted in a Na(+)-dependent, DIDS (4,4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid)- and 5-ethylisopropylamiloride-insensitive HCO(3)(-) transport. Stimulation of CFTR with forskolin markedly inhibited NBC3 activity. This inhibition was prevented by the inhibition of protein kinase A. NBC3 and CFTR could be reciprocally coimmunoprecipitated from transfected HEK cells and from the native pancreas and submandibular and parotid glands. Precipitation of NBC3 or CFTR from transfected HEK293 cells and from the pancreas and submandibular gland also coimmunoprecipitated EBP50. Glutathione S-transferase-EBP50 pulled down CFTR and hNBC3 from cell lysates when expressed individually and as a complex when expressed together. Notably, the deletion of the C-terminal PDZ binding motifs of CFTR or hNBC3 prevented coimmunoprecipitation of the proteins and inhibition of hNBC3 activity by CFTR. We conclude that CFTR and NBC3 reside in the same HCO(3)(-)-transporting complex with the aid of PDZ domain-containing scaffolds, and this interaction is essential for regulation of NBC3 activity by CFTR. Furthermore, these findings add additional evidence for the suggestion that CFTR regulates the overall trans-cellular HCO(3)(-) transport by regulating the activity of all luminal HCO(3)(-) secretion and salvage mechanisms of secretory epithelial cells.     

Creation of an artificial bifunctional intein by grafting a homing endonuclease into a mini-intein

The majority of inteins are comprised of a protein splicing domain and a homing endonuclease domain. Experimental evidence has demonstrated that the splicing domain and the endonuclease domain in a bifunctional intein are largely independent of each other with respect to both structure and activity. Here, an artificial bifunctional intein has been created through the insertion of an existing homing endonuclease into a mini-intein that is naturally lacking this functionality. The gene for I-CreI, an intron-encoded homing endonuclease, was grafted into the monofunctional Mycobacterium xenopi GyrA intein at the putative site of the missing endonuclease. The resulting fusion protein was found to be capable of protein splicing similar to that of the parent intein. In addition, the protein demonstrated site-specific endonuclease activity that is characteristic of the I-CreI homing endonuclease. The function of each domain therefore remained unaffected by the presence of the other domain. This artificial fusion of the two domains is a potential novel mobile genetic element.     

Isoform-specific stimulation of cardiac Na/K pumps by nanomolar concentrations of glycosides

It is well-known that micromolar to millimolar concentrations of cardiac glycosides inhibit Na/K pump activity, however, some early reports suggested nanomolar concentrations of these glycosides stimulate activity. These early reports were based on indirect measurements in multicellular preparations, hence, there was some uncertainty whether ion accumulation/depletion rather than pump stimulation caused the observations. Here, we utilize the whole-cell patch-clamp technique on isolated cardiac myocytes to directly measure Na/K pump current (I(P)) in conditions that minimize the possibility of ion accumulation/depletion causing the observed effects. In guinea pig ventricular myocytes, nanomolar concentrations of dihydro-ouabain (DHO) caused an outward current that appeared to be due to stimulation of I(P) because of the following: (1) it was absent in 0 mM [K(+)](o), as was I(P); (2) it was absent in 0 mM [Na(+)](i), as was I(P); (3) at reduced [Na(+)](i), the outward current was reduced in proportion to the reduction in I(P); (4) it was eliminated by intracellular vanadate, as was I(P). Our previous work suggested guinea pig ventricular myocytes coexpress the alpha(1)- and alpha(2)-isoforms of the Na/K pumps. The stimulation of I(P) appears to be through stimulation of the high glycoside affinity alpha(2)-isoform and not the alpha(1)-isoform because of the following: (1) regulatory signals that specifically increased activity of the alpha(2)-isoform increased the amplitude of the stimulation; (2) regulatory signals that specifically altered the activity of the alpha(1)-isoform did not affect the stimulation; (3) changes in [K(+)](o) that affected activity of the alpha(1)-isoform, but not the alpha(2)-isoform, did not affect the stimulation; (4) myocytes from one group of guinea pigs expressed the alpha(1)-isoform but not the alpha(2)-isoform, and these myocytes did not show the stimulation. At 10 nM DHO, total I(P) increased by 35 +/- 10% (mean +/- SD, n = 18). If one accepts the hypothesis that this increase is due to stimulation of just the alpha(2)-isoform, then activity of the alpha(2)-isoform increased by 107 +/- 30%. In the guinea pig myocytes, nanomolar ouabain as well as DHO stimulated the alpha(2)-isoform, but both the stimulatory and inhibitory concentrations of ouabain were approximately 10-fold lower than those for DHO. Stimulation of I(P) by nanomolar DHO was observed in canine atrial and ventricular myocytes, which express the alpha(1)- and alpha(3)-isoforms of the Na/K pumps, suggesting the other high glycoside affinity isoform (the alpha(3)-isoform) also was stimulated by nanomolar concentrations of DHO. Human atrial and ventricular myocytes express all three isoforms, but isoform affinity for glycosides is too similar to separate their activity. Nevertheless, nanomolar DHO caused a stimulation of I(P) that was very similar to that seen in other species. Thus, in all species studied, nanomolar DHO caused stimulation of I(P), and where the contributions of the high glycoside affinity alpha(2)- and alpha(3)-isoforms could be separated from that of the alpha(1)-isoform, it was only the high glycoside affinity isoform that was stimulated. These observations support early reports that nanomolar concentrations of glycosides stimulate Na/K pump activity, and suggest a novel mechanism of isoform-specific regulation of I(P) in heart by nanomolar concentrations of endogenous ouabain-like molecules.     

A common translational control mechanism functions in axial patterning and neuroendocrine signaling in Drosophila

Translational repression of maternal nanos (nos) mRNA by a cis-acting Translational Control Element (TCE) in the nos 3'UTR is critical for anterior-posterior patterning of the Drosophila embryo. We show, through ectopic expression experiments, that the nos TCE is capable of repressing gene expression at later stages of development in neuronal cells that regulate the molting cycle. Our results predict additional targets of TCE-mediated repression within the nervous system. They also suggest that mechanisms that regulate maternal mRNAs, like TCE-mediated repression, may function more widely during development to spatially or temporally control gene expression.     

Differential recognition of tyrosine-based basolateral signals by AP-1B subunit mu1B in polarized epithelial cells

To investigate the importance of tyrosine recognition by the AP-1B clathrin adaptor subunit mu1B for basolateral sorting of integral membrane proteins in polarized epithelial cells, we have produced and characterized a mutant form of mu1B. The mutant (M-mu1B) contains alanine substitutions of each of the four conserved residues, which in the AP-2 adaptor subunit micro2 are critical for interacting with tyrosine-based endocytosis signals. We show M-mu1B is defective for tyrosine binding in vitro, but is nevertheless incorporated into AP-1 complexes in transfected cells. Using LLC-PK1 cells expressing either wild type or M-mu1B, we find that there is inefficient basolateral expression of membrane proteins whose basolateral targeting signals share critical tyrosines with signals for endocytosis. In contrast, membrane proteins whose basolateral targeting signals are distinct from their endocytosis signals (transferrin and low-density lipoprotein receptors) accumulate at the basolateral domain normally, although in a manner that is strictly dependent on mu1B or M-mu1B expression. Our results suggest that mu1B interacts with different classes of basolateral targeting signals in distinct ways.     

Regulation of alternative oxidase gene expression in soybean

Soybean (Glycine max cv. Stevens) suspension cells were used to investigate the expression of the alternative oxidase (Aox) multigene family. Suspension cells displayed very high rates of cyanide-insensitive respiration, but Aox3 was the only isoform detected in untreated cells. Incubation with antimycin A, citrate, salicylic acid or at low temperature (10 °C) specifically induced the accumulation of the Aox1 isoform. Aox2 was not observed under any conditions in the cells. Increases in Aox1 protein correlated with increases in Aox1 mRNA. Treatment of soybean cotyledons with norflurazon also induced expression of Aox1. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were detected upon incubation of cells with antimycin, salicylic acid or at low temperature, but not during incubation with citrate. Aox1 induction by citrate, but not by antimycin, was prevented by including the protein kinase inhibitor staurosporine in the medium. The results suggest that multiple pathways exist in soybean to regulate expression of Aox genes and that Aox1 specifically is induced by a variety of stress and metabolic conditions via at least two independent signal transduction pathways.     

Characterization of RAD51-independent break-induced replication that acts preferentially with short homologous sequences

Repair of double-strand breaks by gene conversions between homologous sequences located on different Saccharomyces cerevisiae chromosomes or plasmids requires RAD51. When repair occurs between inverted repeats of the same plasmid, both RAD51-dependent and RAD51-independent repairs are found. Completion of RAD51-independent plasmid repair events requires RAD52, RAD50, RAD59, TID1 (RDH54), and SRS2 and appears to involve break-induced replication coupled to single-strand annealing. Surprisingly, RAD51-independent recombination requires much less homology (30 bp) for strand invasion than does RAD51-dependent repair (approximately 100 bp); in fact, the presence of Rad51p impairs recombination with short homology. The differences between the RAD51- and RAD50/RAD59-dependent pathways account for the distinct ways that two different recombination processes maintain yeast telomeres in the absence of telomerase.