Soil fertility shifts the relative importance of saprotrophic and mycorrhizal fungi for maintaining ecosystem stability

Soil microbial communities are essential for regulating the dynamics of plant productivity. However, how soil microbes mediate temporal stability of plant productivity at large scales across various soil fertility conditions remains unclear. Here, we combined a regional survey of 51 sites in the temperate grasslands of northern China with a global grassland survey of 120 sites to assess the potential roles of soil microbial diversity in regulating ecosystem stability. The temporal stability of plant productivity was quantified as the ratio of the mean normalized difference vegetation index to its standard deviation. Soil fungal diversity, but not bacterial diversity, was positively associated with ecosystem stability, and particular fungal functional groups determined ecosystem stability under contrasting conditions of soil fertility. The richness of soil fungal saprobes was positively correlated with ecosystem stability under high-fertility conditions, while a positive relationship was observed with the richness of mycorrhizal fungi under low-fertility conditions. These relationships were maintained after accounting for plant diversity and environmental factors. Our findings highlight the essential role of fungal diversity in maintaining stable grassland productivity, and suggest that future studies incorporating fungal functional groups into biodiversity–stability relationships will advance our understanding of their linkages under different fertility conditions.     

Scaling up the diversity–resilience relationship with trait databases and remote sensing data: the recovery of productivity after wildfire

Understanding the mechanisms underlying ecosystem resilience – why some systems have an irreversible response to disturbances while others recover – is critical for conserving biodiversity and ecosystem function in the face of global change. Despite the widespread acceptance of a positive relationship between biodiversity and resilience, empirical evidence for this relationship remains fairly limited in scope and localized in scale. Assessing resilience at the large landscape and regional scales most relevant to land management and conservation practices has been limited by the ability to measure both diversity and resilience over large spatial scales. Here, we combined tools used in large‐scale studies of biodiversity (remote sensing and trait databases) with theoretical advances developed from small‐scale experiments to ask whether the functional diversity within a range of woodland and forest ecosystems influences the recovery of productivity after wildfires across the four‐corner region of the United States. We additionally asked how environmental variation (topography, macroclimate) across this geographic region influences such resilience, either directly or indirectly via changes in functional diversity. Using path analysis, we found that functional diversity in regeneration traits (fire tolerance, fire resistance, resprout ability) was a stronger predictor of the recovery of productivity after wildfire than the functional diversity of seed mass or species richness. Moreover, slope, elevation, and aspect either directly or indirectly influenced the recovery of productivity, likely via their effect on microclimate, while macroclimate had no direct or indirect effects. Our study provides some of the first direct empirical evidence for functional diversity increasing resilience at large spatial scales. Our approach highlights the power of combining theory based on local‐scale studies with tools used in studies at large spatial scales and trait databases to understand pressing environmental issues.     

Agriculture erases climate constraints on soil nematode communities across large spatial scales

Anthropogenic conversion of natural to agricultural land reduces aboveground biodiversity. Yet, the overall consequences of land‐use changes on belowground biodiversity at large scales remain insufficiently explored. Furthermore, the effects of conversion on different organism groups are usually determined at the taxonomic level, while an integrated investigation that includes functional and phylogenetic levels is rare and absent for belowground organisms. Here, we studied the Earth's most abundant metazoa—nematodes—to examine the effects of conversion from natural to agricultural habitats on soil biodiversity across a large spatial scale. To this aim, we investigated the diversity and composition of nematode communities at the taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic level in 16 assemblage pairs (32 sites in total with 16 in each habitat type) in mainland China. While the overall alpha and beta diversity did not differ between natural and agricultural systems, all three alpha diversity facets decreased with latitude in natural habitats. Both alpha and beta diversity levels were driven by climatic differences in natural habitats, while none of the diversity levels changed in agricultural systems. This indicates that land conversion affects soil biodiversity in a geographically dependent manner and that agriculture could erase climatic constraints on soil biodiversity at such a scale. Additionally, the functional composition of nematode communities was more dissimilar in agricultural than in natural habitats, while the phylogenetic composition was more similar, indicating that changes among different biodiversity facets are asynchronous. Our study deepens the understanding of land‐use effects on soil nematode diversity across large spatial scales. Moreover, the detected asynchrony of taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity highlights the necessity to monitor multiple facets of soil biodiversity in ecological studies such as those investigating environmental changes.     

The relationship between species richness and productivity in four typical grasslands of northern China

The relationship between plant species richness and primary productivity has long been acentral topic in biodiversity research.In this paper,we examine the relationship between species richness and productivity in four typical grasslands of Northern China at different spatial scales.At the community scale,a positive correlation was found for six of seven communities.A unimodal pattern was found only for one community (Stipa glareosa community),while at a large scale (vegetation type or landscape/region),the relationship was also found significantly positive.Species richness ranged from 4 to 35 species,and community aboveground productiand aboveground productivity were found in alpine meadow,followed by meadow steppe,typical steppe and desert steppe.     

Monitoring marine macroalgae: the influence of spatial scale on the usefulness of biodiversity surrogates

Aim To examine the influence of spatial scale on the usefulness of commonly employed biodiversity surrogates in subtidal macroalgae assemblages. Location South‐west Australia. Methods The relationship between biodiversity surrogates and univariate and multivariate species‐level patterns was tested at multiple spatial scales, ranging from metres (between quadrats) to hundreds of kilometres (between regions), using samples collected from almost 2000 km of temperate coastline that represented almost 300 species. Biodiversity surrogates included commonly used cost‐effective alternatives to species‐level sampling, such as those derived from functional groups and from taxonomic aggregation. Results Overall, surrogates derived from taxonomic aggregation to genus or family level correlated strongly with species‐level patterns, although the family‐level surrogate was a less effective predictor of species richness at large spatial scales. Surrogates derived from aggregation to coarser taxonomic levels and functional groups performed poorly, while the effectiveness of a surrogate measure derived from canopy‐forming species improved with increasing spatial scale. Main conclusions A critical, but rarely examined, assumption of biodiversity surrogates is that the relationship between surrogate and species‐level patterns is consistent in both space and time, and across a range of spatial and temporal scales. As the performance of all surrogates was, to some degree, scale‐dependent, this work empirically demonstrated the need to consider the spatial extent and design of any biodiversity monitoring programme when choosing cost‐effective alternatives to species‐level data collection.     

Macroecological patterns in soil communities

Aim To review published evidence regarding the factors that influence the geographic variation in diversity of soil organisms at different spatial scales. Location Global. Methods A search of the relevant literature was conducted using the Web of Science and the author's personal scientific database as the major sources. Special attention was paid to include seminal studies, highly cited papers and/or studies highlighting novel results. Results Despite their significant contribution to global biodiversity, our taxonomic knowledge of soil biota is still poor compared with that of most above‐ground organisms. This is particularly evident for small‐bodied taxa. Global patterns of soil biodiversity distribution have been poorly documented and are thought to differ significantly from what is reported above‐ground. Based on existing data, it appears that microorganisms do not respond to large‐scale environmental gradients in the same way as metazoans. Whereas soil microflora seem to be mainly represented by cosmopolitan species, soil animals respond to altitudinal, latitudinal or area gradients in the same way as described for above‐ground organisms. At local scales, there is less evidence that local factors regulate above‐ and below‐ground communities in the same way. Except for a few taxa, the humpbacked response to stress and disturbance gradients doesn't seem to apply underground. Soil communities thus appear weakly structured by competition, although competitive constraints may account for assembly rules within specific taxa. The main factor constraining local soil biodiversity is the compact and heterogeneous nature of soils, which provides unrivalled potential for niche partitioning, thus allowing high levels of local biodiversity. This heterogeneity is increased by the impact of ecosystem engineers that generate resource patchiness at a range of spatio‐temporal scales.     

环境选择和扩散限制驱动温带森林土壤细菌群落的构建

环境选择和扩散限制是生态系统中生物群落构建的两个基本过程,而两者相对作用的大小因研究尺度、群落属性和类型等有所不同.目前对温带亚高山森林土壤微生物群落构建的驱动因子和机制尚缺乏了解.本文利用PCR-DGGE技术研究庞泉沟自然保护区内5种典型森林包括华北落叶松林、青杄林、白杄林、油松林以及桦树林的6个森林土壤细菌群落(Lp MC1、Lp MC2、Pw MC、Pm MC、Pt MC、BMC)的结构特征及其影响因素,分析细菌群落结构与环境因子的相关性,以及土壤因子、植被和空间因素对细菌群落结构的影响.结果表明:研究区各样地土壤细菌群落的结构和生物多样性具有显著差异,低海拔落叶松和油松土壤细菌群落多样性较高(20条带),白杄林土壤细菌群落(13条带)多样性最低,高海拔落叶松土壤细菌群落多样性最高;土壤环境因子,如pH、土壤含水量、总碳、总氮、土壤有机质、速效磷以及土壤酶活性与土壤细菌群落多样性和结构显著相关;样地土壤细菌群落的beta多样性与群落的空间距离呈显著相关,表明扩散限制对群落结构具有一定的影响;方差分解分析结果显示,6个样地细菌群落结构的驱动因素大小依次为土壤因子(0.27)、空间因素(0.19)和植被(0.15);将区域土壤微生物作为"源群落",微宇宙试验结果显示,土壤因子是细菌群落结构形成的主要驱动力(0.35),同时源群落丰富的物种多样性对微宇宙土壤细菌群落结构具有显著影响.总之,在局域尺度下,环境选择对温带森林土壤细菌群落结构动态和多样性发挥主导作用,地理距离对群落结构具有显著影响,即确定性过程和随机过程共同决定局域森林土壤细菌群落结构,前者占主导地位.对于土壤细菌群落而言,扩散群落的组成和结构受到源群落的多样性特征和环境因子的双重影响.     

Functional and phylogenetic diversity determine woody productivity in a temperate forest

Understanding the relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem productivity has become a central issue in ecology and conservation biology studies, particularly when these relationships are connected with global climate change and species extinction. However, which facets of biodiversity (i.e. taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity) account most for variations in productivity are still not understood very well. This is especially true with regard to temperate forest ecosystems. In this study, we used a dataset from a stem‐mapped permanent forest plot in northeastern China exploring the relationships between biodiversity and productivity at different spatial scales (20 × 20 m; 40 × 40 m; and 60 × 60 m). The influence of specific environmental conditions (topographic conditions) and stand maturity (expressed by initial stand volume and biomass) were taken into account using the multivariate approach known as structural equation models. The variable “Biodiversity” includes taxonomic (Shannon), functional (FDis), and phylogenetic diversity (PD). Biodiversity–productivity relationships varied with the spatial scales. At the scale of 20 × 20 m, PD and FDis significantly affected forest biomass productivity, while Shannon had only indirect effects. At the 40 × 40 m and 60 × 60 m scales, biodiversity and productivity were weakly correlated. The initial stand volume and biomass were the most important drivers of forest productivity. The local environmental conditions significantly influenced the stand volume, biomass, biodiversity, and productivity. The results highlight the scale dependency of the relationships between forest biodiversity and productivity. The positive role of biodiversity in facilitating forest productivity was confirmed at the smaller scales. Our findings emphasize the fundamental role of environmental conditions in determining forest ecosystem performances. The results of this study provide a better understanding of the underlying ecological processes that influence specific forest biodiversity and productivity relationships.     

Bacterial diversity patterns along a gradient of primary productivity

Primary productivity is a key determinant of biodiversity patterns in plants and animals but has not previously been shown to affect bacterial diversity. We examined the relationship between productivity and bacterial richness in aquatic mesocosms designed to mimic small ponds. We observed that productivity could influence the composition and richness of bacterial communities. We showed that, even within the same system, different bacterial taxonomic groups could exhibit different responses to changes in productivity. The richness of members of the Cytophaga‐Flavobacteria‐Bacteroides group exhibited a significant hump‐shaped relationship with productivity, as is often observed for plant and animal richness in aquatic systems. In contrast, we observed a significant U‐shaped relationship between richness and productivity for α‐proteobacteria and no discernable relationship for β‐proteobacteria. We show, for the first time, that bacterial diversity varies along a gradient of primary productivity and thus make an important step towards understanding processes responsible for the maintenance of bacterial biodiversity.     

毛乌素沙地景观的植被与土壤特征空间格局及其相关分析

以毛乌素沙地景观不同尺度和生境中的植被盖度、植物物种数、土壤有机碳和全氮含量的空间格局和相互关系进行了研究。结果表明：不同尺度和生境中的植被盖度与植物物种数之间,以及土壤有机碳含量与全氮含量之间都具有显著的相关。在50－5000m的尺度上,植被盖度与植物物种数之间,以及土壤有机碳含量与全氮含量之间具有相似的空间格局,但植被特征（植被盖度与植物物种数）与土壤特征（土壤有机碳含量与全氮含量）具有不同的空间变化格局,两者之间没有显著的相关关系;在小于50m的尺度上,固定沙丘中的植物物种数与土壤有机碳和全氮含量之间具有显著的正相关,半固定水丘中的植物物种数与土壤有机碳含量具有显著的负相关。这说明,在小于50m的尺度上土壤有机碳和全氮含量格局制约了植被格局,但在50－5000m的尺度上却没有。这一研究表明植被与土壤之间的相互关系依赖于不同的空间尺度。     

Biodiversity in species,traits, and structure determines carbon stocks and uptake in tropical forests

Impacts of climate change require that society urgently develops ways to reduce amounts of carbon in the atmosphere. Tropical forests present an important opportunity, as they take up and store large amounts of carbon. It is often suggested that forests with high biodiversity have large stocks and high rates of carbon uptake. Evidence is, however, scattered across geographic areas and scales, and it remains unclear whether biodiversity is just a co‐benefit or also a requirement for the maintenance of carbon stocks and uptake. Here, we perform a quantitative review of empirical studies that analyzed the relationships between plant biodiversity attributes and carbon stocks and carbon uptake in tropical forests. Our results show that biodiversity attributes related to species, traits or structure significantly affect carbon stocks or uptake in 64% of the evaluated relationships. Average vegetation attributes (community‐mean traits and structural attributes) are more important for carbon stocks, whereas variability in vegetation attributes (i.e., taxonomic diversity) is important for both carbon stocks and uptake. Thus, different attributes of biodiversity have complementary effects on carbon stocks and uptake. These biodiversity effects tend to be more often significant in mature forests at broad spatial scales than in disturbed forests at local spatial scales. Biodiversity effects are also more often significant when confounding variables are not included in the analyses, highlighting the importance of performing a comprehensive analysis that adequately accounts for environmental drivers. In summary, biodiversity is not only a co‐benefit, but also a requirement for short‐ and long‐term maintenance of carbon stocks and enhancement of uptake. Climate change policies should therefore include the maintenance of multiple attributes of biodiversity as an essential requirement to achieve long‐term climate change mitigation goals.     

基于综合指数法的白龙江流域生物多样性空间分异特征研究

大中区域尺度上生物多样性空间分布格局识别是制定和实施区域生物多样性保护计划的前提条件,也是生物多样性保护确定优先区域研究工作迫切需要解决的关键问题之一。拟以甘肃白龙江流域为例,结合InVEST模型和遥感、GIS技术,以区域生境质量、植物净初级生产力和景观状态指数为评价指标,应用归一化处理方法,构建区域生物多样性空间格局综合评估方法,在栅格像元尺度上开展白龙江流域生物多样性评价及其空间分异特征分析。结果表明:白龙江流域生物多样性较为丰富,空间分异特征明显。生物多样性较高的区域(Ⅰ和Ⅱ级以上)面积约占39.80%,且主要集中在自然保护区和林业管护区。生物多样性较低的地区主要分布在舟曲-武都-文县的白龙江两岸及其以北区域、宕昌县岷江沿岸、高寒稀疏植被区和高山积雪-裸岩区。     

Consistency and variation in kelp holdfast assemblages: Spatial patterns of biodiversity for the major phyla at different taxonomic resolutions

The focus of this study was to measure natural spatial variability in the biodiversity of fauna inhabiting kelp holdfasts in northeastern New Zealand at several spatial scales: from meters up to hundreds of kilometers. We wished to test the hypothesis that multivariate variation and biodiversity would vary significantly at different spatial scales in different ways for the major phyla in the holdfast community (Arthropoda, Annelida, Mollusca and Bryozoa). Biodiversity was considered in terms of richness, total abundance, structural composition (as measured by the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity measure) and taxonomic breadth for each major phylum and for the assemblage as a whole. We also examined the effect of taxonomic resolution on multivariate patterns. Species richness and total abundance increased with increases in holdfast volume. Multivariate variation was greatest at the smallest spatial scale for all phyla, but different phyla showed different patterns of multivariate variation at different spatial scales. Variations among locations at the largest spatial scale were primarily due to differences in the composition and richness of bryozoans and molluscs. Location effects became less and less distinct with decreases in taxonomic resolution. There were very few significant differences in richness or abundance for holdfasts of a given volume, taxonomic breadth did not vary significantly across locations, nor did the proportional abundances of phyla. These consistencies across large spatial scales in the absence of environmental impacts and results from other studies suggest that holdfast communities in New Zealand systems would provide a useful model assemblage against which future impacts may be detected as changes in proportions of component phyla. In addition, high variability detected at small and large scales at the species level, especially for bryozoans and molluscs, suggest that these communities may also provide unique opportunities for studying and understanding sources and functions of marine biodiversity.     

Satellite-based Studies on Large-Scale Vegetation Changes in China

Remotely-sensed vegetation indices, which indicate the density and photosynthetic capacity of vegetation, have been widely used to monitor vegetation dynamics over broad areas. In this paper, we reviewed satellite-based studies on vegetation cover changes, biomass and productivity variations, phenological dynamics, desertification, and grassland degradation in China that occurred over the past 2–3 decades. Our review shows that the satellite-derived index (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, NDVI) during growing season and the vegetation net primary productivity in major terrestrial ecosystems (for example forests, grasslands, shrubs, and croplands) have significantly increased, while the number of fresh lakes and vegetation coverage in urban regions have experienced a substantial decline. The start of the growing season continually advanced in China's temperate regions until the 1990s, with a large spatial heterogeneity. We also found that the coverage of sparsely-vegetated areas declined, and the NDVI per unit in vegetated areas increased in arid and semi-arid regions because of increased vegetation activity in grassland and oasis areas. However, these results depend strongly not only on the periods chosen for investigation, but also on factors such as data sources, changes in detection methods, and geospatial heterogeneity. Therefore, we should be cautious when applying remote sensing techniques to monitor vegetation structures, functions, and changes.     

The influence of biotic interactions on soil biodiversity

Belowground communities usually support a much greater diversity of organisms than do corresponding aboveground ones, and while the factors that regulate their diversity are far less well understood, a growing number of recent studies have presented data relevant to understanding how these factors operate. This review considers how biotic factors influence community diversity within major groups of soil organisms across a broad spectrum of spatial scales, and addresses the mechanisms involved. At the most local scale, soil biodiversity may potentially be affected by interactions within trophic levels or by direct trophic interactions. Within the soil, larger bodied invertebrates can also influence diversity of smaller sized organisms by promoting dispersal and through modification of the soil habitat. At larger scales, individual plant species effects, vegetation composition, plant species diversity, mixing of plant litter types, and aboveground trophic interactions, all impact on soil biodiversity. Further, at the landscape scale, soil diversity also responds to vegetation change and succession. This review also considers how a conceptual understanding of the biotic drivers of soil biodiversity may assist our knowledge of key topics in community and ecosystem ecology, such as aboveground–belowground interactions, and the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. It is concluded that an improved understanding of what drives the diversity of life in the soil, incorporated within appropriate conceptual frameworks, should significantly aid our understanding of the structure and functioning of terrestrial communities.     

Cross-spatial-scale patterns in the facilitative effect of shrubs and potential for restoration of desert steppe

Facilitation (positive plant–plant interactions) is a potential means to accelerate vegetation restoration in arid areas. Shrubs can accelerate vegetation recovery by means of soil amelioration, but this effect has not been evaluated at large spatial scales or across scales. Here, we examined the facilitative function of shrub change across spatial scales at a desert steppe in Mongolia. Using a high-resolution satellite image, we established five 2500 m² plots in each of three shrub density classes (low, moderate, high) in a desert steppe in Mongolia. To evaluate the facilitative functions of shrubs at multiple spatial scales, we recorded the total number of plant species at three nested spatial scales in each plot: 25, 400, and 2500 m². The facilitative effect of shrubs on plant species richness was more pronounced at larger scales. Denser shrub communities increased plant species diversity at a larger scale. However, the increased taxonomic diversity was not clearly related to increased functional diversity in this system. This scale dependency in species diversity can be explained by the degree to which spatial heterogeneity of habitats within the plots increased as plot size increased. These results support the hypothesis of scale-dependent changes in the balance between facilitation and competition. Therefore, transplanting shrub saplings at high-density and a larger scale could potentially improve the success of vegetation restoration in arid regions.     

Testing the correlation between beta diversity and differences in productivity among global ecoregions,biomes, and biogeographical realms

Considerable amount of research on the relationships between species diversity and productivity at different spatial, ecological, and taxonomic scales has been conducted. However, the overall trend of the correlation at the global scale still remains sketchy and the causal relationship between species diversity and productivity needs further exploration. This is especially true with beta diversity since most studies carried out use alpha diversity as the general term for species diversity. In this study we use the MODIS NDVI as the surrogate of productivity, and the WWF ecoregion systems and its species distribution information to test correlations between beta diversity and differences in productivity at various taxonomic ranks on a global scale. Matrix correlation is performed between species composition measured as beta diversities using Sørensen similarity index and MODIS NDVI/productivity measured as Bhattacharyya distances through Mantel permutation tests. The correlation coefficients and Mantel test significance levels are reported at the global ecoregion, biogeographical realm, and biome levels respectively. Significant correlations are found at all three taxonomic ranks. Results from realm and biome tests suggest that the highest correlations are reached at the temperate regions when species rank is used. Our findings suggest that species' natural spatial boundaries, such as the biogeographical realms or biogeographic kinship play a critical role in shaping the correlation patterns between beta diversity and productivity differences at the global scale.     

High Foliar and Soil Nitrogen Concentrations in Central Appalachian Forests

Regional topography and climate variation yield differences in ecosystem attributes that make spatially scaled estimates of forest productivity challenging. Foliar nitrogen is a primary indicator of forest ecosystem productivity and is used in regional estimates of terrestrial productivity, but this characteristic has not been well described in the Central Appalachian region. Here we describe foliar and soil N variation among species and elevations at two spatial scales in the Central Appalachian region: (1) across the Elklick watershed in the Fernow Experimental Forest and (2) across the state of West Virginia. We found higher foliar N concentrations at both scales than those previously reported for other temperate forest regions. Canopy and soil nitrogen concentrations were also much greater in the Fernow than generally observed across West Virginia. Soil N concentrations in the Fernow were two times greater than those observed across West Virginia. Species-related differences were observed at both spatial scales, but were not always consistent. Canopy N ranges are generally consistent across elevations throughout the state of West Virginia, but should be scaled according to species-related elevation effects for studies that estimate productivity differences in response to harvest or changing species composition. The incongruence of foliar and soil N concentrations at the Fernow Experimental Forest are not explained by elevation or species composition, but are likely a consequence of greater historical N and H⁺ deposition relative to the surrounding West Virginia region.