FasL在睾丸细胞的定位

FasL/Fas系统介导的胞外信号凋亡途径是哺乳动物睾丸生殖细胞凋亡的一条主要途径,然而,关于FasL在睾丸细胞中的定位却存在争议。本文对近年来国内外关于FasL在睾丸中的细胞定位研究进行了综述,为阐明FasL/Fas系统介导生殖细胞凋亡的机制提供资料,对深入理解睾丸中Sertoli细胞和生殖细胞间的调控关系及临床实践具有一定的指导作用。     

哺乳动物精子发生过程中的细胞凋亡及其影响因素

睾丸生殖细胞凋亡是维持精子发生动态平衡,限制生精上皮生殖细胞数量的一个重要生理机制,受多种因素调控。本简要叙述精子发生过程中细胞凋亡的激素调节、基因调控及其他理化等因素的影响及其作用机制。     

Bcl-2和Bax在吗啡依赖雄性大鼠生殖细胞中的表达

目的：探讨B细胞淋巴瘤/白血病-2和人Bcl-2相关x蛋白（Bcl-2、Bax）在吗啡依赖大鼠睾丸生殖细胞中的表达及细胞凋亡可能机制,为治疗阿片类毒品造成的男性性功能减退提供理论依据。方法：以递增法每日给予雄性大鼠皮下注射盐酸吗啡针剂,建立吗啡依赖组。空白对照组注射等量生理盐水。实验成功后将两组大鼠睾丸组织作常规HE染色和免疫组化染色。结果：吗啡依赖组大鼠生精管壁细胞明显地出现上皮层次减少,仅有2~3层,细胞排列疏松,界限模糊,精子细胞和精子数目减少,并发现曲细精管腔内有脱落的生精细胞;免疫组化结果：吗啡依赖组大鼠生殖细胞中bcl-2的阳性表达率明显低于对照组（P〈0.01）,而生殖细胞中bax蛋白的阳性表达率明显高于对照组（P〈0.01）。结论：吗啡依赖可造成雄性大鼠生殖细胞凋亡数量显著增加,其机制可能是通过下调抑凋亡因子Bcl-2,上调促凋亡因子Bax,促进生殖细胞凋亡来实现的。     

镉对小鼠精母细胞凋亡及附睾内精子质量的影响

采用人工水质染毒的方法,利用透射电镜技术及流式细胞术（FCM）,探讨重金属镉对小鼠精巢内生殖细胞凋亡及附睾内成熟精子质量的影响.结果表明：各试验组小鼠生殖细胞处于凋亡时期的数量显著高于对照组,凋亡时期的生殖细胞超微结构呈现出线粒体空泡、核膜内陷、染色质周缘化及核固缩等形态特征,表明镉容易引起小鼠生殖细胞凋亡;各试验组精子早期凋亡的比例显著高于对照组,而活性精子的比例显著低于对照组（P<0.05）,其中高剂量组（0.10 mmol·L^-1）精子成活率（75.1%）显著低于对照组和其他试验组,而早期凋亡率（22.6%）则显著高于对照组;高剂量组睾丸生殖细胞DNA断裂率（18.2%）及附睾精子断裂率（26.5%）均显著高于对照组（3.3%、5.6 %）（P<0.05）.各试验组小鼠睾丸内DNA断裂的生殖细胞数量低于附睾内DNA断裂的精子数量.随着添加剂量的增加,小鼠睾丸内生殖细胞及附睾内精子凋亡率逐渐升高.表明小鼠生殖细胞凋亡及DNA损伤数量与镉剂量具有一定相关性.     

胚胎及生后不同发育时期大鼠睾丸生殖细胞的凋亡

目的 探索雄性生殖细胞在发育过程中凋亡的特征和规律。方法 利用改进的石蜡切片原位末端标记法（TUNEL法）观察SD大鼠睾丸生殖细胞,对胚胎及生后不同阶段生殖细胞凋亡进行研究。结果 胚胎第13.5天原始生殖细胞即有较高的凋亡率,胚胎第19.5天到出生后第1天,未检测到凋亡生殖细胞,出生后第7天精原细胞分裂增生,伴有较高的凋亡率,与其他各年龄组有显著性差异。出生后第14天精母细胞凋亡率最高,与其他日龄组有显著性差异。结论 SD大鼠雄性生殖细胞发生,发育,成熟过程中都存在凋亡,主要发生在处于细胞增殖过程中的原始生殖细胞,精原细胞和初级精母细胞。     

环磷酰胺对雄性大鼠生殖免疫功能的影响

目的观察环磷酰胺对大鼠睾丸及其细胞免疫的影响,探讨抗肿瘤药物在生殖免疫功能中的机制。方法选用16只15周龄SD大鼠,随机分为对照组和实验组,每组8只;实验组腹腔注射环磷酰胺20mg/kg/d,连续5天,用药两个月后,应用HE染色法研究大鼠睾丸远期组织学变化,用原位缺口末端标记法（TUNEL方法）检测生精小管中生殖细胞凋亡,放射免疫法检测血清睾酮（T）、卵泡刺激素（FSH）、黄体生成素（LH）,流式细胞术进行血液T淋巴细胞亚群分析。结果实验组睾丸生精小管直径缩小、间距增宽、生精上皮变薄、生殖细胞层次和数量减少、生精小管腔多未见精子形成,实验组睾丸生精小管直径、面积、生殖细胞数均显著低于对照组（P〈0.01）;实验组与对照组比较生殖细胞凋亡增多,差异显著（P〈0.01）;实验组与对照组比较血清T明显降低,差异显著（P〈0.01）,血清FSH、LH水平两组间差异无显著性;血液T淋巴细胞亚群分析,实验组与对照组比较CD3＋CD4＋、CD4＋/CD8＋明显降低（P〈0.01）,CD3＋CD8＋明显升高（P〈0.01）。结论环磷酰胺对大鼠睾丸远期损害明显,促进生殖细胞凋亡,降低睾酮的分泌,并抑制T淋巴细胞的免疫功能。     

氧化诱导K_(562)细胞凋亡机制的初步探讨

以过氧化氢（Ｈ２Ｏ２）诱导人慢性髓细胞白血病（Ｋ５６２）细胞为凋亡模型,采用流式细胞仪（ｆｌｏｗｃｙｔｏｍｅｔｒｙ,ＦＣＭ）和激光共聚焦扫描显微镜（ｌａｓｅｒｃｏｎｆｏｃａｌｓｃａｎｎｉｎｇｍｉｃｒｏｓｃｏｐｙ,ＬＣＳＭ）研究细胞凋亡,形态观察出现核固缩,核碎裂及凋亡小体等典型凋亡特征．ＤＮＡ电泳图谱出现“Ｌａｄｄｅｒ”．ＦＣＭ检测在Ｇ０／Ｇ１峰前出现一低ＤＮＡ含量的凋亡峰．ＬＣＳＭ显示凋亡细胞ｃ－Ｆｏｓ．ｃ－Ｊｕｎ和ＮＦκＢ表达量均有不同程度的增加．该结果提示上述三种转录因子可能参与氧化诱导凋亡过程中基因的调控作用．     

C1型尼曼–匹克病小鼠雄性不育的睾丸病理研究

该文主要研究C1型尼曼–匹克病小鼠(Npc1~(–/–)小鼠)雄性不育的睾丸病理变化,并进一步探讨Npc1基因对雄性不育的影响。随机选取P60的Npc1~(–/–)和Npc1~(+/+)雄鼠各12只,观察隐睾发生率;然后,随机选取P20、P40和P60的Npc1~(–/–)和Npc1~(+/+)雄鼠睾丸组织,统计睾丸重量并计算睾丸指数, HE染色观察生殖细胞层数并测量生精小管直径, PAS糖原染色观察生殖细胞周期并统计精母细胞在总细胞数中的相对百分比,油红O染色观察间质细胞的脂质存储;最后,随机选择P60的Npc1~(–/–)和Npc1~(+/+)雄鼠睾丸,通过TUNEL染色观察生殖细胞凋亡,并通过Western blot检测凋亡蛋白Cleaved-caspase-3、Cleaved-caspase-9、p53、Bax和Bcl-2的表达水平。结果显示,与Npc1~(+/+)雄鼠相比, Npc1~(–/–)雄鼠均有隐睾发生,睾丸重量和睾丸指数均显著降低(P0.05, P0.001),生殖细胞层数不明显,生精小管管径显著减小(P0.001),生精周期不规律且精母细胞数量显著减少(P0.001),间质细胞的脂质存储显著减少(P0.001);生殖细胞凋亡大幅增加(P0.001), Cleaved-caspase-3、Cleaved-caspase-9、p53、Bax表达量显著升高(P0.001),Bax/Bcl-2比率显著升高(P0.001)。该文结果提示, Npc1基因突变导致隐睾、睾丸结构异常、间质细胞脂质储存减少及生殖细胞凋亡,因此, Npc1基因可能成为研究男性不育的新靶点。     

Bcl—2抑制电离辐射诱发细胞凋亡的线粒体机制探讨

低剂量电离辐射能够诱发细胞凋亡的发生,Ｂｃｌ－２能够抑制多种因素诱发的细胞凋亡,本文报道了Ｂｃｌ－２基因转染细胞克隆对４ＧｙＸ－射线诱发细胞凋亡的影响及其与可能的机制。结果表明,高度表达Ｂｃｌ－２的细胞克隆在７２ｈ内明显抑制了４ＧｙＸ－射线诱发的ＣＨＯ细胞凋亡,进一步的机制探讨表明,Ｂｃｌ－２能够维持或恢复受电离辐射损伤而降低的线粒体膜电位水平,结果提示：Ｂｃｌ－２对低剂量电离辐射诱发的细胞凋亡的     

调控睾丸支持细胞增殖和分化的信号通路研究进展

支持细胞是睾丸内的一类重要细胞,能为生精过程提供转运蛋白、调节蛋白、生长因子等数十种细胞因子,参与生精细胞成熟分化的调控,对睾丸内各级生殖细胞的迁移、增殖和分化具有重要的支持作用。研究表明,在Wnt/β-catenin信号通路中,关键蛋白β-catenin的适度激活能促进睾丸支持细胞的增殖、分化;在mTOR信号通路中,mTOR基因的缺失导致睾丸支持细胞的数量减少;在TGF-β信号通路中,不同浓度的TGF-β细胞因子影响睾丸支持细胞的增殖、分化。由此可见,Wnt/β-catenin信号通路、mTOR信号通路和TGF-β信号通路在睾丸支持细胞的增殖和分化中均具有重要的调控作用。对这三条信号通路调节支持细胞增殖分化的机制以及它们之间的相互作用作一综述,旨在为深入研究调控睾丸支持细胞增殖的信号机制提供理论依据,从而进一步为雄性生育的调控及生殖方面的疾病治疗提供新思路和新方法。     

Haploinsufficiency of Bcl-x leads to male-specific defects in fetal germ cells: differential regulation of germ cell apoptosis between the sexes

In germ cells, the function of which is to form the next generation, apoptotic cell death occurs during development, as in the case of somatic cells. In this study, we show that Bcl-x knockout heterozygous (Bcl-x(+/-)) mice exhibit severe defects in male germ cells during development. A substantial increase in apoptosis of male germ cells occurs at around embryonic day 13.5 (E13.5) in Bcl-x(+/-) embryos, leading to hypoplasia of postnatal testes and reduced fertility. On the other hand, female germ cells at the same stages do not show discernible differences between wild-type and Bcl-x(+/-) embryos. This phenotype of Bcl-x haploinsufficiency shows that regulation of apoptosis becomes different between the sexes at around the onset of sex differentiation. Through this study, we found that, in wild-type embryos, (1) apoptosis is much more frequent (approximately 10 times) in the male than in female germ cells, and (2) expression of Bcl-xL, but not that of Bax, is higher in female than in male germ cells, at around E13.5. Male fetal germ cells, cultured with gonadal somatic cells in vitro, showed higher frequencies of apoptosis than those cultured without gonadal somatic cells. On the other hand, in the absence of gonadal somatic cells, both male and female fetal germ cells in vitro showed similar frequencies of apoptosis to female fetal germ cells in vivo. Therefore, male germ cell apoptosis, of which the default pathway is similar to that of the female, is likely to be influenced by male gonadal environments.     

Germ cell suicide: new insights into apoptosis during spermatogenesis

Mature sperm are the product of a precisely regulated developmental sequence in which germ cell proliferation, differentiation, self-renewal and apoptosis are carefully controlled. The control of germ cell apoptosis during spermatogenesis is especially important. It is mediated by signals derived from the Sertoli cells with which each germ cell is closely associated, as well as by signals originating outside the testis. A greater understanding of these signals is emerging from studies of the spermatogenic defects of genetically modified animals. In particular, the intracellular signaling cascades which ultimately determine germ cell fate are being illuminated by recent studies of the Bcl-2 protein family. This review summarises the crucial role which stringently regulated apoptosis plays in the production of male gametes.     

Calpain inhibitors prevent p38 MAPK activation and germ cell apoptosis after heat stress in pubertal rat testes

Testicular injuries like torsion or cryptorchidism can cause massive germ cell death, which could have great impact on male reproductive health. In addition, it has been proposed that modern life style, in the form of underwear or sedentary work position, could increase the testicular temperature, induce germ cell apoptosis, reduce spermatozoa quality and promote male infertility. In this work we showed that a heat stress stimulus induced massive germ cells apoptosis, which was associated with p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation along with an increase in the levels of mRNA encoding calpain 2. Synthetic calpain inhibitors prevented heat stress-induced germ cell apoptosis through inhibition of p38 MAPK phosphorylation. Thus, our results indicate that the blockage of calpains suppresses p38 MAPK phosphorylation, and identifies calpain activation (most likely calpain 2) as an early event in heat stress-induced male germ cell apoptosis. J. Cell. Physiol. 221: 296–305, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Age-dependent loss of sperm production in mice via impaired lysophosphatidic acid signaling

Approximately half of all infertility cases can be attributed to male reproductive dysfunction for which low sperm count is a major contributing factor. The current study identified receptor-mediated lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) signaling as a new molecular component influencing male fertility. LPA is a small signaling phospholipid, the effects of which are mediated through at least five G protein-coupled receptors, named LPA 1-5. LPA1/2/3, but not LPA4/5, show high expression in mouse testis. Mice deficient in LPA1/2/3 showed a testosterone-independent reduction of mating activity and sperm production, with an increased prevalence of azoospermia in aging animals. A significant increase of germ cell apoptosis also was observed in testes. Germ cell apoptosis led to a reduction in germ cell proliferation. These data demonstrate a novel in vivo function for LPA signaling as a germ cell survival factor during spermatogenesis.     

HST-1/FGF-4 protects male germ cells from apoptosis under heat-stress condition

Apoptosis plays an important role in controlling the number of male germ cells and eliminating defective germ cells during testicular development and spermatogenesis. We show here that fibroblast growth factor-4 (HST-1/FGF-4) may play a critical role as a survival factor for germ cells, protecting them from apoptosis. Testes of adult male mice that received an adenovirus carrying human HST-1/FGF-4 (AxHST-1) or a control adenovirus (AxCAwt) were exposed to mild hyperthermia, which causes germ cell apoptosis. An in situ terminal-deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxy-UTP nick end-labeling (TUNEL) assay characterized germ cell apoptosis. The results indicated that HST-1/FGF-4 significantly reduced the apoptotic death of germ cells and prevented testicular weight loss and sperm count reduction. We also found that Hst-1/Fgf-4 present in testes is up-regulated in vivo when the testes are exposed to mild hyperthermia, and that endogenous Hst-1/Fgf-4 mRNA expression in Sertoli cells are also induced when the cells are exposed to mild hyperthermia in vitro. In addition, the MAPK cascade, which could increase an FGF-dependent survival signal, is activated by HST-1/FGF-4 stimuli in germ cells. On the other hand, upon HST-1/FGF-4 stimulation, lactate production from Sertoli cells were induced, which is indispensable nutrient for germ cell survival. These results suggest that HST-1/FGF-4 can act as an important physiological anti-apoptotic factor for male germ cells in stimulating lactate production of Sertoli cells upon heat stress, thereby promoting germ cell survival.     

Mitochondria-dependent pathway is involved in heat-induced male germ cell death: lessons from mutant mice

The signaling events leading to apoptosis can be divided into two major pathways, involving either mitochondria (intrinsic) or death receptors (extrinsic). In a recent study, we have shown the involvement of the mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathway in heat-induced male germ cell apoptosis in the rat. In additional studies, using the gld (generalized lymphoproliferation disease) and lprcg (lymphoproliferation complementing gld) mice, which harbor loss-of-function mutations in Fas L and Fas, respectively, we have shown that heat-induced germ cell apoptosis is not blocked, thus providing evidence that the Fas signaling system is not required for heat-induced germ cell apoptosis in the testis. In the present study, we have found that the initiation of apoptosis in wild-type mice was preceded by a redistribution of Bax from a cytoplasmic to paranuclear localization in heat-susceptible germ cells. The relocation of Bax is accompanied by sequestration of ultracondensed mitochondria into paranuclear areas of apoptotic germ cells, cytosolic translocation of mitochondrial cytochrome c and DIABLO, and is associated with activation of the initiator caspase 9 and the executioner caspase 3. Similar events were also noted in both gld and lprcg mice. Taken together, these results indicate that the mitochondria-dependent pathway is the key apoptotic pathway for heat-induced male germ cell death in mice.     

Effects of TGF-betas and a specific antagonist on apoptosis of immature rat male germ cells in vitro

Massive apoptosis of pubertal male germ cells is important for the development of functional spermatogenesis in the adult testis. Although the trigger(s) for male germ cell loss at puberty remain undefined, we have hypothesized that transforming growth factor-betas (TGF-βs) play an active role. Here we demonstrate that the three mammalian TGF-β isoforms, TGF-β1, TGF-β2 and TGF-β3, induce distinct apoptosis of pubertal spermatogonia and spermatocytes in a dose-dependent manner. Induction of male germ cell death by activation of caspase-3 was most pronounced with TGF-β2 compared to TGF-β1 and TGF-β3. Furthermore, we found colocalization of activated caspase-3 with apoptotic protease-activating factor-1 (Apaf-1) in apoptotic germ cells, thus indicating the importance of the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway in TGF-β-induced apoptosis. The specificity of the TGF-β effects was proven by addition of recombinant latency-associated peptide against TGF-β1 (rLAP-TGF-β1) which completely abolished TGF-β1-induced and TGF-β3-induced germ cell apoptosis. Although TGF-β2-triggered germ cell death also was significantly reduced by rLAP-TGF-β1, inhibition was not maximal. Our results suggest that the three TGF-β isoforms induce apoptosis of pubertal male germ cells via the mitochondrial pathway in vitro and are thus likely candidates involved in the excessive first wave of apoptosis of male germ cells during puberty. Lutz Konrad and Marcel Munir Keilani contributed equally to this work.     

p53蛋白在周期调节蛋白A1变异引起的雄性小鼠生殖细胞凋亡中的作用

为研究p5 3蛋白在周期调节蛋白A1(cyclinA1)变异引起的雄性小鼠生殖细胞凋亡中的作用 ,以p5 3基因敲除的小鼠和周期调节蛋白A1基因敲除的小鼠杂交 ,获取同胎生单基因变异和双基因同时变异的雄性后代共 4组 12只 .比较它们的性腺和生殖细胞发育 ,并用TUNEL染色法观察和比较生殖细胞的凋亡情况 .在睾丸最大横切面上观察到 :周期调节蛋白A1变异组凋亡细胞最多 (348± 10 4个 ) ,明显高于p5 3 周期调节蛋白A1双基因变异组 (12 1± 38个 ) ,t=3 2 5 79,P =0 0 4 72 .p5 3变异组凋亡细胞最少 (45± 2 4个 ) ,配对t检验显示有非常显著性差异 ,t=8 4 0 13,P =0 0 0 35 .这一研究结果提示 ,p5 3基因可能在雄性生殖细胞的发育中起监视作用 ,并在周期调节蛋白A1变异引起发育异常时启动p5 3途径造成异常细胞的凋亡 .     

Regulation of human male germ cell death by modulators of ATP production

The understanding of testicular physiology, pathology, and male fertility issues requires knowledge of male germ cell death and energy production. Here, we induced human male germ cell apoptosis (detected by Southern blot analysis of DNA fragmentation, TUNEL, activation of caspases-3 and -9, and electron microscopy) by incubating seminiferous tubule segments under hormone- and serum-free conditions. Inhibitors of complexes I to IV of mitochondrial respiration, exposure to anoxia, and inhibition of F0F1-ATPase (with oligomycin) decreased the ATP levels (analyzed by HPLC) and suppressed apoptosis at 4 h. Uncoupler 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) and oligomycin combination also suppressed death at 4 h, as did the DNP alone. Inhibition of glycolysis by 2-deoxyglucose neither suppressed nor further induced apoptosis nor altered the antiapoptotic effects of the mitochondrial inhibitors. Furthermore, Fas system activation did not modify the effects of mitochondrial modulators. After 24 h, delayed male germ cell apoptosis was observed despite the presence of the mitochondrial inhibitors. We conclude that the mitochondrial ATP production machinery plays an important role in regulating in vitro-induced primary pathways of human male germ apoptosis. The ATP synthesized by the F0F1-ATPase seems to be the crucial death regulator, rather than any of the complexes (I-IV) alone, the functional electron transport chain, or the membrane potential. We also conclude that there seem to be secondary pathways of human testicular cell apoptosis that do not require mitochondrial ATP production. The present study emphasizes the role of the main catabolic pathways in the complex network of regulating events of male germ cell life and death.     

Role of caspase 2 in apoptotic signaling in primate and murine germ cells

This study investigates the role of caspase 2 in apoptotic signaling of nonhuman primate male germ cells triggered by mild testicular hyperthermia, testosterone (T(e)) implants, or by combined interventions. Mean incidence of germ cell apoptosis increased significantly by Day 3 in the heat (H(e)) alone group and by Day 8 in the Te alone group but peaked at Day 3 in H(e) + T(e) group. We found activation of caspase 2 in both germ cells and Sertoli cells after induction of apoptosis. Most notably, active caspase 2 immunoreactivity was detected only in those germ cells susceptible to apoptosis compared with controls, where little or no such staining is detected. To further explore the role of caspase 2 in regulating male germ cell death, we next evaluated the efficacy of caspase 2 inhibition in preventing or attenuating heat-induced germ cell apoptosis in rats. Caspase 2 inhibition significantly (P < 0.05) prevented such heat-induced germ cell apoptosis. The protection offered by the caspase 2 inhibitor occurred upstream of mitochondria, involving suppression of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) 14 activation and inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) induction and, in turn, suppression of cytochrome c-mediated death pathway. Together, our results show that caspase 2 is activated in male germ cells undergoing apoptosis in nonhuman primates after heat stress, hormonal deprivation, or after combined interventions. Blockade of caspase 2 activation prevents heat-induced germ cell apoptosis in rats by suppressing the MAPK14- and NO-mediated intrinsic pathway signaling.