新疆北部拟南芥自然居群表型变异与协变

拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)自然居群的表型特征代表其在自然环境下的适应状况, 不同居群间特征的对比可以为了解拟南芥表型变化规律, 进而分析其形成过程和机制提供重要线索。本研究以分布于新疆北部天山、塔尔巴哈台山和阿尔泰山的10个种群的9个表型性状为基础, 对比分析了小尺度、局域尺度和区域尺度环境下原生境拟南芥种群表型性状的变化。结果发现, 不同性状对环境变化的反应不同, 其中株高、株重、根重、根长、单个果实重、果实开裂力度在3种环境尺度下种群间的差异均达到极显著水平, 而分枝数、果实长度的种群间变化不显著, 种群间的表型分化系数较低。不同环境尺度下株重、根重、单株果数均表现出一致的协变格局, 反映了生理功能性状之间整合对拟南芥适应环境的重要性。同时, 各种群间整体的性状协变差异性明显, 根长、单个果实重、分枝数、果实长度、果实开裂力度等特征与其他特征协变具有明显的局部性, 局域尺度和区域尺度环境之间的变化较大。聚类分析发现区域尺度上的不同种群聚合在一起的现象非常突出, 进一步表明拟南芥的表型特征受微环境的强烈影响。Mantel检验表明, 小尺度上10个种群株高、株重、根重、单个果实重、果实长度、果实开裂力度6个性状变化存在显著的空间相关性, 而分枝数、根长的相关性却不显著。因此, 我们认为拟南芥表型变化受小尺度环境的影响强烈, 但在表型层面并非所有性状都与原生境气候存在遗传关联。     

天山北部拟南芥生存群落特征及其与环境的关系

为了解拟南芥在天山北部的分布状况及环境依赖特点, 分析拟南芥的自然选择特征, 本文对天山北部分布的13个拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)生存群落结构、组成及其与环境关系进行了研究, 并分析了拟南芥与群落主要物种的种间联结性。结果表明: 拟南芥生存的群落结构简单, 其中天山北坡中段的石河子、一四三团、沙湾、独山子地区的8个群落均为草本类型, 优势种相似, 而与伊犁果子沟、额敏和阿勒泰的5个群落差别较大。属的区系成分分析表明世界分布、北温带分布以及地中海、西亚至中亚分布型成分占大多数, 具有典型的地中海旱生植物区系分布特征, 体现了本地拟南芥分布及演化的干旱、半干旱的地理环境特点。采用双向指示种分析(TWINSPAN)将13个群落分为新疆绢蒿–猪毛菜–角果毛茛(Seriphidium kaschgaricum–Salsola collina–Ceratocephalus testiculatus)、新疆绢蒿–猪毛菜(S. kaschgaricum–S. collina)、新疆绢蒿–狭果鹤虱(S. kaschgaricum–Lappula semiglabra)、新疆绢蒿–旱麦草(S. kaschgaricum–Eremopyrum triticeum)、勿忘草–草原苔草(Myosotis sylvatica–Carex liparocarpos)5个群落类型。去势典范对应分析(DCCA)表明纬度、坡向、土壤有机质及pH值是决定天山北部拟南芥种群分布的主导因子。拟南芥分布与群落内其他物种有极强的依赖关系, 与13个群落62个主要物种的种间联结性分析表明, 共有119个正关联性种对, 明显高于72个负关联性种对, 与各群落优势种呈显著正关联。拟南芥种群分布数量在群落间差异较大, 分布于降雨较少的天山中部浅山地带拟南芥种群数量均高于降雨较丰富的天山西部伊犁果子沟地区, 是否发生适应性分化需要深入研究。     

天山北麓中段拟南芥（Arabidopsis thaliana）与相邻物种的分布格局及相互关系

天山山脉是世界拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)及其近缘种的分布中心之一,资源优势明显.在北天山中段浅山地带选择拟南芥分布的典型样地50m×50m,分析了样地物种的结构、组成和土壤理化性质,用Ripley's K(d)函数分析了拟南芥与相邻物种的空间特征和相互关系.发现样地由7科23个物种组成,以新疆绢蒿(Seriphidium kaschgaricum)为建群种,短命植物物种占近70%.拟南芥仅分布于北坡,在3m内聚集强度高于所有分析物种,在5m范围内与新疆绢蒿中株呈显著正关联,与十字花科的涩芥(Malcolmia africana)、藜科的散枝猪毛菜(Salsola brachiata)、木碱蓬(Suaeda dendroides)、角果藜(Ceratocarpus arenarius)呈一定尺度显著负关联.分析认为拟南芥空间分布依赖于新疆绢蒿大株、中株生长塑造的遮阴、保湿和丰富土壤有机质,生态位与藜科物种差异极大,生境特异性高于同属近缘种小鼠耳芥(Arabidopsis pumila),以及涩芥(M. africana)、庭芥(Alyssum desertorum)、四齿芥(Tetracme quadricornis)、丝叶芥(Leptaleum filifolium)、狭果鹤虱(Lappula semiglabra)等短命植物.在干旱胁迫下,拟南芥环境选择强度大于种内作用,密度依赖的种子扩散表现不明显.扩散对策是通过大量生产种子,依靠果实不易开裂控制种子短距离扩散,充分利用原适宜生境来维持种群繁衍.     

五角枫种群表型多样性

为揭示五角枫种群的表型分化程度、变异模式及地理变异规律,以山西19个种群为研究对象,采用巢式方差分析、相关分析、聚类分析等方法从形态学角度对五角枫种群的叶片、果实、种子等23个表型性状进行了系统分析。结果表明:(1)五角枫23个表型性状中除果柄长、着生痕、种子长/宽以外,其余20个表型性状在种群间和种群内均存在显著和极显著差异。(2)19个种群的平均变异系数为18.07。叶片、果实、种子的平均表型变异系数依次为:果实19.78%叶片18.77%种子10.25%。(3)五角枫种群间表型分化系数(VST)均值为48.82%,种群内变异(51.18%)与种群间变异(48.82%)基本相当。叶片、果实、种子表型分化系数的平均值为:叶片58.08%果实41.24%种子25.87%。(4)五角枫叶片、果实和种子的信息多样性指数(H)为:叶片6.1079果实5.9118种子5.2855;多样性指数平均值(D)分别为:果实0.9967叶片0.9961种子0.9948。(5)主成分分析结果显示:五角枫种群表型多样性基本来源为:叶片贡献率果实贡献率种子贡献率。(6)五角枫表型变异呈现出以经度和纬度变异并存的趋势,少数表型性状与经度和纬度呈现显著或极显著相关。(7)利用欧氏距离对五角枫种群进行UPGMA聚类分析,将五角枫19个种群划分为两大类群。五角枫种群具有较高的表型多样性,种群间和种群内均存在丰富的表型变异,与其遗传特点和分布生境等密切相关,研究结果为今后五角枫种质资源的保护和利用奠定了基础。     

濒危植物凹叶厚朴种实特性

凹叶厚朴(Magnolia officinalis subsp.biloba)为中国二级保护植物。本文对该树种不同分布群体的种实性状进行了研究。结果表明:凹叶厚朴结实数量较少,平均结实3.19个;种实特征在不同种群间差异显著,其变异主要来源于单株间及单株内,其中果实性状的方差分量要大于种子性状,表明果实的性状较易受环境的影响;果实性状与郁闭度及土壤养分含量存在显著或极显著的相关性,种子宽与种子质量与海拔呈显著负相关,种子厚度与海拔呈极显著负相关,而与生境及土壤条件相关性并不明显。凹叶厚朴在野生状态下单株结实率低,单果出种率低是其濒危的重要原因之一。     

茶条槭自然种群种子和果实表型多样性研究

为探析茶条槭(Acer ginnala)种子和果实表型差异程度及变异规律,该研究采用巢式方差分析、主成分分析、聚类分析等方法,对茶条槭主要分布区内7个种群种子和果实的12个表型性状进行比较研究,分析茶条槭种群间和种群内的表型多样性以及与地理生态因子的关系。结果表明:除种子长/宽(SLW)外,其它11个表型性状在茶条槭种群间和种群内均具有显著差异;各性状平均变异系数(CV)为13.90%,变异幅度为8.14%～32.08%;种群间翅果性状的平均变异系数(15.63%)高于种子性状的平均变异系数(8.71%),表明种子性状的稳定性高于果实性状。主成份分析中,果实形态特征对茶条槭种群表型的贡献率大于种子贡献率。种群间表型分化系数为35.47%,说明种群内变异(64.53%)大于种群间变异(35.47%),暗示变异主要来源于种群内变异。茶条槭种子和果实表型性状受地理生态因子影响较小,主要受自身遗传因素的影响。基于种群间欧式距离的聚类分析将茶条槭7个种群分为2大支,没有严格按照地理距离而聚类,表明茶条槭种群表型性状变异的不连续性。茶条槭不同种群种子和果实具有较高的表型多样性,与其分布范围和生物学特性有关。     

天山北部拟南芥生存群落物种多样性的空间格局

在对新疆天山北部浅山地带拟南芥（Arabidopsis thaliana）生存分布调查的基础上,研究了13个拟南芥样地（生存群落）的综合物种多样性格局特征及环境因子对其空间格局的影响。结果表明,各样地物种多样性指数差异明显。天山西支婆罗科努山的伊犁地区多样性最大,塔尔巴哈台山额敏地区其次,天山中部8个样地多样性较低且变幅较大,阿尔泰山阿勒泰地区多样性指数处于中等水平,总体上,13个拟南芥样地物种多样性空间格局异质性明显;各样地拟南芥及其邻近种种类及数量不一,以天山中部最多;物种多样性空间格局与降水量变化关系拟合较好,随降水量增加而增大;物种多样性指数的DCCA排序表明,除降水量外,坡向、有效钾及电导率等微环境因子也是影响物种多样性空间格局的重要因素。     

不同生境与花部特征对巫山淫羊藿结实特性的影响

对不同生境中巫山淫羊藿结实特性进行比较研究。结果表明:(1)三个种群在繁殖时期中不同花部特征的植株繁殖投资差异不大,如每株分枝数、每株花序数和每株开花数差异均不显著;(2)三个种群中每株结实数、每株结实率、每花序结实数在不同花部特征中差异显著,PLS和SAA要显著大于PESS;(3)三种花部特征在不同生境中单株分枝数和单株花序数均无显著差异。在不同花部特征中种群1开花数量相较少,因而在结实方面均值均要小于种群2和种群3;(4)不同花部特征的果实饱满种子数、败育数和败育率均具有显著差异,而种子数差异不大,但在种群间均无显著的差异。说明种子的多少更多地受到花部特征的影响。总之,巫山淫羊藿的结实特性受到生境和花部特征的双重影响,其中花型比生境对巫山淫羊藿结实特性的影响更为明显。     

元宝枫天然种群种实表型多样性

为探索元宝枫(Acer truncatum)种群间和种群内的表型变异程度和变异规律,以元宝枫主要分布区内15个天然种群150个单株的13个种实性状为研究材料,采用巢氏方差分析、多重比较等分析方法,分析元宝枫种群间和种群内的表型多样性及其与地理生态因子间的相关性。结果表明:元宝枫果实、种子性状在种群内、种群间存在丰富的变异,各种实性状在种群内、种群间均具有极显著差异;元宝枫种群间表型分化系数为19.87%,种群内变异(80.13%)大于种群间变异(19.87%),种群内变异是变异的主要来源;元宝枫各性状平均变异系数为13.34%,变异幅度为8.98%~21.45%,种群间种子性状的平均变异系数(11.46%)低于种群间翅果性状的平均变异系数(14.52%),表明种子性状的稳定性高于果实性状。主成分分析结果显示,果实形态对元宝枫种群表型的贡献率大于种子贡献率。性状间相关性分析结果显示,翅果越大则种子越大,果翅角度性状与果实、种子大小皆无显著关系,推测其为独立因子。果实形态变异主要表现为经向变异,而种子性状无显著变异。利用种群间聚类分析将元宝枫15个种群分为三大类群。种群间与种群内多层次的变异模式为元宝枫种质资源保护与利用提供依据。     

山西葛萝槭天然种群表型多样性研究

为揭示山西葛萝槭种群表型变异程度及变异规律,采用巢式方差分析、主成分分析、相关分析及聚类分析等方法,对天然分布的8个种群的叶片、果实、种子21个表型性状进行表型多样性分析。结果显示:（1)葛萝槭表型性状在种群间和种群内存在着极其丰富的变异。种群间平均表型分化系数(V_ST)为50.16%,与种群内变异(49.84%)相当;表型变异系数（CV）为19.16%,变化幅度7.89%~37.04%,种子性状较果实、叶片性状稳定;8个不同种群的Shannon-Wiener多样性指数为1.692 3,表明葛萝槭种群具有较高的表型多样性。(2)相关性分析表明,葛萝槭表型性状受地理生态因子的影响,种群内表型变异呈梯度性变化,随着经、纬度的增加,叶形逐渐由长卵形向宽卵形变异;随着海拔的升高,果实、种子逐渐减小。(3)利用种群间欧式距离进行系统聚类分析,可以将8个葛萝槭种群分为两大支,表型性状主要依地理距离而聚类。研究表明,葛萝槭种内存在丰富的变异,这与其生物学特性及分布生境密切相关。     

TEMPORAL VARIATION OF FLOWER AND FRUIT SIZE IN RELATION TO SEED YIELD IN CELANDINE POPPY (CHELIDONIUM MAJUS; PAPAVERACEAE)

Ecological and evolutionary studies typically consider variation in single reproductive characters in isolation, without considering how they might be correlated with other reproductive and vegetative characters. In our study, we examined temporal patterns of variation and correlation in flower diameter and fruit length during a reproductive phase in two Massachusetts populations of the herb, Chelidonium majus. We also examined the relationships of such variation to measurements of seed yield components (mean seed weight and number per fruit) and aspects of plant vegetative size. Most of the variation in the sizes of reproductive characters occurred within individual plants, instead of among plants or between populations. Flower and fruit sizes as well as seed number per fruit declined significantly during the season in both populations. Only mean seed size per fruit was relatively stable for individual plants in both populations. Conserving resources by a gradual reduction in the size of reproductive characters over the season may be a strategy for maternal plants to continue seed production. The strong, persistent patterns of correlation between certain characters, such as flower and fruit size, in spite of extensive phenotypic plasticity, was interpreted as indirect evidence for developmental correlation. Furthermore, vegetatively larger plants produced not only more flowers and fruits, but also consistently larger flowers and fruits. The results emphasize that variation in fitness characters, such as seed size and number, should not be viewed in isolation from vegetative characters, flower, and fruit sizes in ecological and evolutionary studies, if the goal is to understand the mechanisms of natural selection in wild populations.     

海拔对全缘叶绿绒蒿植株性状和花特征的表型选择分析

为了研究海拔差异对植株性状、花特征表型选择的影响,以青藏高原高寒草甸的全缘叶绿绒蒿（Meconopsis integrifolia）为研究材料,于盛花期内,测定不同海拔（4 452、4 081和3 681 m）种群中个体植株性状、花特征、单果结实数并进行统计分析,采用线性回归模型估计不同海拔种群间植株性状、花特征所受的表型选择（选择差与选择梯度）。结果表明：（1）随着海拔升高,全缘叶绿绒蒿植株性状、花特征及单果结实数显著降低,海拔越高的种群中株高越矮、叶面积越小、花数越少、花越小、单果结实数越低。（2）不同海拔种群中各性状的表型选择存在差异,较低海拔（3 681 m）种群中花数、花大小具有显著的选择差和选择梯度,表现为花越多、花越大的个体雌性适合度越高;海拔较高（4 081 m）的种群中株高、叶面积及花数更容易受到选择,表现为植株越高、叶面积越大、花越多的个体雌性适合度越高;海拔最高（4 452 m）的种群中叶面积与花数的选择梯度接近显著。（3）植物性状分化伴随着海拔的变化而呈现出差异,较低海拔种群中花特征容易受到选择,而较高海拔种群中可能由于传粉者稀少、资源限制等因素使得株高、叶面积更容易受到选择。     

Phenotypic plasticity and integration in response to flooded conditions in natural accessions of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh (Brassicaceae)

Flood response is a crucial component of the life strategy of many plants, but it is seldom studied in non-flooded tolerant species, even though they may be subjected to stressful environmental conditions. Phenotypic plasticity in reaction to environmental stress affects the whole plant phenotype and can alter the character correlations that constitute the phenotypic architecture of the individual, yet few studies have investigated the lability of phenotypic integration to water regime. Moreover, little has been done to date to quantify the sort of selective pressures that different components of a plant's phenotype may be experiencing under contrasting water regimes. Genetic differentiation and phenotypic plasticity at the single-trait and multivariate levels were investigated in 47 accessions of the weedy plant Arabidopsis thaliana, and the relationship of plastic characters to reproductive fitness was quantified. Results indicate that these plants tend to be highly genetically differentiated for all traits, in agreement with predictions made on the basis of environmental variation and mating system. Varied patterns of apparent selection under flooded and non-flooded conditions were also uncovered, suggesting trade-offs in allocation between roots and above-ground biomass, as well as between leaves and reproductive structures. While the major components of the plants' multivariate phenotypic architecture were not significantly affected by environmental changes, many of the details were different under flooded and non-flooded conditions.     

Phenotypic Variation among and within Three Peppers Species (<i>Capsicum</i>) from Mexico

The phenotypic variation and its distribution among species, morphotypes, and among and within populations was estimated in 71 populations pertaining to 15 morphotypes of three domesticated species of Capsicum from Mexico. Collections were made in the states of Sinaloa, Nayarit, Oaxaca, Tabasco, and Yucatán in two agroecosystems: Backyard-garden and monoculture. Fifteen phenotypic characteristics were analyzed through one-way variance analysis and multivariate analyses of principal components analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering using Ward’s method. The study was performed in a uniform greenhouse experiment. A high variation was found among and within populations in all the measured characteristics. Of the total variation, 13.0% was distributed among species, 27.9% among morphotypes, 8.1% among populations, and 51.0% within populations. Because plants grew in a uniform environment, these results indicate that the differences observed among and within species, morphotypes, and populations have a genetic basis. Univariate and multivariate analyses clearly differentiated morphotypes, suggesting that the category of morphotypes must be used to nominate the infraspecific variation in the domesticated Capsicum. The principal components analysis identified a total of 15 principal components that contributed to explain the total variation. The first two components explained 59.64% of the total variation and seven components explained more than 90% of the total variation. Among the measured characteristics, number of seed per fruit, weight of the fruit, width of the fruit, length of the fruit, stem diameter, days to flowering, and height of the plant contributed to component 1 variation, whereas width of the leaf, length of the leaf, and number of locules, number of fruits and number of seeds per plant contributed to component 2. The hierarchical clustering separated the populations and the morphotypes in two large different groups. One group consisted of populations collected in monoculture conditions and the other group corresponded to population collected from backyard-garden conditions. The monoculture populations were characterized mainly by their longer, wider, and higher weight fruits, plants were of less height, had smaller stem diameters, and lower number of fruits than the populations collected from the backyard-garden conditions. The backyard-garden populations of the Capsicum annuum and Capsicum frutescens species, considered wild or semi-domesticated, constituted a non-differentiated phenotypic group that does not allow dividing them in different species.     

新疆郁金香营养生长、个体大小和开花次序对繁殖分配的影响

植物有性繁殖与资源分配的关系研究对于揭示植物生活史特征及繁育系统进化具有重要意义。新疆郁金香(Tulipa sinkiangensis)是新疆天山北坡荒漠带特有的一种多年生早春短命植物。在自然生境中,该物种仅以有性繁殖产生后代,每株能产生1-8朵花,且不同植株上的花数及果实数以及花序不同位置上的花与果实大小明显不同。本文通过对新疆郁金香有性繁殖与营养生长及植株大小的关系以及花序中不同位置花及果实间的资源分配研究,旨在揭示营养生长、个体大小及开花次序对其繁殖分配的影响。结果表明:在开花和果实成熟阶段,新疆郁金香植株分配给营养器官(鳞茎和地上营养器官)与繁殖器官的资源间均存在极显著的负相关关系(P<0.01),说明其植株的营养生长与生殖生长间存在权衡关系。多花是新疆郁金香的一个稳定性状,其植株上花数目、花生物量、果实生物量和种子数量与植株生物量间均呈极显著的正相关关系(P<0.01),说明新疆郁金香植株的繁殖分配存在大小依赖性。在具2-5朵花的新疆郁金香植株中,花序内各花的生物量、花粉数和胚珠数、结实率、果实生物量、结籽数、结籽率及种子百粒重按其开花顺序依次递减,说明花序内各花和果实的资源分配符合资源竞争假说。植株通过减少晚发育的花或果实获得的资源来保障早发育的花或果实获得较多的资源,从而达到繁殖成功。     

Host plant-mediated variation in overwintering site quality: implications for the size and composition of populations of Acanthoscelides alboscutellatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)

This study provides an example of how variation in the quality of overwintering sites provided by the host plant of an insect seed predator can influence both the probability of overwintering survival and the size and composition of postwintering populations. Thus, the concept of host plant quality is extended to include variation in the suitability of the overwintering site of temperate region insects that overwinter within, or in habitats created by, their host plant. Adult Acanthoscelides alboscutellatus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) overwinter inside the fruit of Ludwigia alternifolia (L.) (Onagraceae). In early winter, however, fruits begin to dehisce, i.e., one or more of the fruit's four sides and/or top are shed. Variation in the onset and extent of dehiscence creates a range of overwintering habitats that vary in exposure to ambient conditions. In this study the frequency of possible overwintering sites in natural populations of L. alternifolia was determined by monitoring the phenology of fruit dehiscence from October through May in two populations for four years and for a third population for three years. Winter survivorship of adult A. alboscutellatus was assessed experimentally in eight environments representative of the conditions created by variation in dehiscence. These environments were produced by crossing four levels of exposure (degree of dehiscence) with two locations of the overwintering site, i.e., above or on the ground surface. The onset, phenology, and overall frequency of fruit dehiscence varied markedly among populations and years. Exposure, location, and their interaction had strong effects on survival and accounted for 80% of the observed variation in winter survival. Survivorship was higher on than above the ground, and in both locations decreased with increasing exposure. Thus, variation in fruit dehiscence among L. alternifolia populations will influence the size of postwintering A. alboscutellatus populations by dictating the quality of overwintering sites. Adult beetles that over-winter inside indehiscent fruit experience selection for small body size, associated with high mortality, when they attempt to exit the fruit at eclosion. As a consequence, the frequency of fruit dehiscence at eclosion coupled with the relative survival rates of adults within indehiscent fruit will determine the body size composition of postwintering populations and hence the response to selection for small body size in this species.     

Phenotypic plasticity of Vaccinium meridionale (Ericaceae) in wild populations of mountain forests in Colombia

Vaccinium meridionale is a promising crop for the Andean region of South America and is currently available only in the wild. Spontaneous populations of this plant are found across the Colombian mountains, but very few published records on this plant morphology are available. A zonification study of V. meridionale was conducted in four principal areas of a low mountain forest of Colombia (Provinces of Boyacá, Cundinamarca, Santander and Nari?o) in 2007. A total of 20 populations and 100 plants of V. meridionale were individually characterized and surveyed, using a list of 26 characters of morphological variables (9 quantitative and 17 qualitative characters). Our results indicated that natural populations of V. meridionale might be found in the tropical forest under a highly heterogeneous climate and microclimate conditions, at different mountain regions between 2 357 and 3 168masl. The shrubs of V. meridionale exhibited a high level of intra-population variation in several quantitative (plant height, stem diameter) and qualitative (growth habit, ramification density, presence of anthocyanins in stems) morphological characters, suggesting an environmentally induced phenotypic plasticity. Plant height, stem diameter and foliar density were the most variable morphological traits, with coefficients of variation higher than 50%. However, several quantitative characters of its reproductive potential, such as berry dimensions, rachis length and number of flowers per inflorescence, resulted with low plasticity with coefficients of variation lower than 30.2%, indicating that these characters were genetically determined. The highest correlation coefficients (p < 0.05) resulted to be between fruit length and fruit width (0.90), leaf length and leaf width (0.78), plant height and stem diameter (0.60), and inflorescence length and flowers number per inflorescence (0.57). The results suggest that an important genetic resource exists for this species in the wild. Low variation in fruit size, which constitutes a target trait for plant breeders, could be useful for selection of cultivars of V. meridionale. The results of this study could also be applied in conservation programs aimed to protect these diverse populations in the mountain forests of Colombia.     

Why are fruit traits of Cistus ladanifer (Cistaceae) so variable: A multi-level study across the western Mediterranean region

Variation is the raw material for evolution. Differences among populations in the expression of traits related to plant fitness may result from natural selection, phenotypic plasticity (in response to local conditions), and developmental instability (manifested as high intra-individual variation in repeated patterns or characters). Cistus ladanifer is a highly polymorphic plant distributed in the Mediterranean and the only species in the family (Cistaceae, 180 species) with a variable number of valves per fruit. We herein analysed the variation in the number of valves (5–12) and seeds (318–1185) per fruit in 36 populations (607 individuals, 1821 fruits) at different levels: temporal, geographical, ecogeographical, taxonomic, and phylogeographical. In addition, we tested whether an increased number of fruit valves influences pre-dispersal seed predation. Large variation in the number of valves and seeds per fruit among populations, individuals, and years was reported. The number of ovules and seeds per valve increased with a higher number of fruit valves. Geographical and taxonomic variables did not significantly explained this fruit variation. On the contrary, we found a negative relationship between the number of fruit valves and altitude and a positive relationship with precipitation. We argue that ecogeographical factors, in addition to some phylogeographical and phylogenetic signals, are involved in the multiplication of carpels during the development of the ovary wall. This, coupled with the results of the evolutionary history of Cistus in previous studies, indicates active evolutionary processes in C. ladanifer populations.