Bioclimatic conditions in Mexico City – an assessment

 Bioclimatic conditions have been assessed for a large urban area located in the tropical highlands of central Mexico using the indices (in °C) of resultant temperature (RT) and effective temperature (ET). The well-developed heat island effect the city generates, reduces the number of nights categorized as cold (ET between 5 and 15° C) to cool (ET from 15 to 18.5° C). Most days fall in the cold to cool range and during the warm season (April to June) the bioclimate of Mexico City is mostly within the neutral (comfort) range. The effect of the nocturnal (to the west) and daytime (to the east of the town) heat island is noticeable in the central and northern sectors. The daytime heat island located in these regions, albeit small (urban air temperature 2–3° C greater than rural), compared with the nocturnal heat island intensity (9–10° C) still adds energy to the already heated afternoon urban air. ET values in the north and central sectors approach the threshold for comfort (ET of 25° C) during the warm months around noon. It is not surprising to find that as the nocturnal heat island has increased over the years (1921–1985) as the city grew, so has the ET for the central district and indicating the dominating role of temperature in the ET index. Assessment of the diurnal cycle of bioclimatic conditions in downtown Mexico City by means of two empirical indices (effective temperature and thermopreferendum) throughout the years gave similar results to those obtained from the application of Fanger’s predicted mean vote (PMV) model. An attempt has been made to characterize four bioclimatic zones in the capital city. Received: 8 March 1994 / Revised: 15 July 1996 / Accepted: 9 September 1996     

Urban climate and air quality in Trier Germany

To conceptualize strategies for regional environmental management in the Trier region, extensive urban meteorological measurements were undertaken. Weather stations from the German Weather Service and the state Pollution Monitoring Network were used as well as a number of our automatic meteorological stations and a mobile platform (instrumented van). The bioclimatic conditions in the city of Trier are affected by the valley of the Moselle River. Both the wind field and the thermal stratification in the urban boundary layer showed local characteristics especially marked in the diurnal variation and monthly mean concentrations of the air pollutants nitrogen and sulfurdioxide (NO(x), SO(2)), ozone (O(3)) and particle matter (PM10). Catabatic flows from the side valleys partially reduce the urban heat island and increase the ozone concentration in the city in the evening during calm weather conditions. The impact-based air-quality index is mostly determined by a high PM10 concentration. Strategies to reduce air pollutions in the Trier region are discussed.     

2003—2011年夏季北京城市热景观变化特征

自北京城市总体规划(2004—2020年)以来,城市化快速发展,强烈的人类活动改变了城市的热环境。基于2003年、2007年和2011年夏季同时期的TM遥感卫星影像,采用遥感反演地温的方法,运用RS、GIS以及景观分析工具,对北京城市六环内的热场和热岛变化特征进行了分析。分析结果表明,2003—2011年北京城市六环内的热场分布特征发生了很大变化,2003年城市各环线内的植被覆盖度最低,但是夏季城市的地表辐射亮温分布差异相对较小,热岛特征也并不十分明显,随着城市建设规模扩大和用能的增加,到2011年,尽管城市植被覆盖度提高很快,但城市和城郊的温差达到最大,城市热岛在不断增强,热场向城市中心集聚趋势明显。通过城市热岛等级类型的景观指数分析表明,2011年的高等级的热岛斑块分布范围和强度都明显提高,而且城市五环内高等级的热岛范围基本连成一片。由于城市人类活动的加剧各热岛等级斑块的形状更加复杂。在景观水平上的分析显示,2007年的热景观斑块类型多,在六环内的分布均匀,破碎化程度高,至2011年,景观斑块的蔓延度逐渐下降,低等级的热岛斑块优势度逐渐降低。研究结论可以为城市管理决策部门制定有效的热岛效应缓解措施提供理论依据。     

The urban heat island and its impact on heat waves and human health in Shanghai

With global warming forecast to continue into the foreseeable future, heat waves are very likely to increase in both frequency and intensity. In urban regions, these future heat waves will be exacerbated by the urban heat island effect, and will have the potential to negatively influence the health and welfare of urban residents. In order to investigate the health effects of the urban heat island (UHI) in Shanghai, China, 30 years of meteorological records (1975–2004) were examined for 11 first- and second-order weather stations in and around Shanghai. Additionally, automatic weather observation data recorded in recent years as well as daily all-cause summer mortality counts in 11 urban, suburban, and exurban regions (1998–2004) in Shanghai have been used. The results show that different sites (city center or surroundings) have experienced different degrees of warming as a result of increasing urbanization. In turn, this has resulted in a more extensive urban heat island effect, causing additional hot days and heat waves in urban regions compared to rural locales. An examination of summer mortality rates in and around Shanghai yields heightened heat-related mortality in urban regions, and we conclude that the UHI is directly responsible, acting to worsen the adverse health effects from exposure to extreme thermal conditions.     

城市热岛的生态环境效应

城市热岛效应(Urbanheatislandeffect,简称UHI)是一种由于城市建筑及人类活动导致热量在城区空间范围内聚集的现象,是城市气候最显著的特征之一。热岛引起地表温度的提高,必将强烈地影响着城市生态系统的物流、能流,改变城市生态系统结构和功能,产生一系列生态环境效应,影响着城市气候、城市水文、城市土壤理化性质、城市大气环境、城市生物习性、城市物质循环、城市能量代谢以及城市居民健康等。提高能量利用效率、优化城市格局、建设绿色屋顶、采用高反射率地表材料以及增加城市绿地均可有效地控制城市热岛效应。利用遥感手段和数值模型技术,开展多尺度的城市热岛生态环境效应研究,为改善城市生态环境、实现城市可持续发展提供理论依据。     

Bioclimatic characterisation of an urban area: a case study in Bologna (Italy)

Summer bioclimatic discomfort is a significant public health problem. Bioclimatic characterisations of populations living in urban areas are usually very poor, although the risks are relatively higher in cities because of the phenomenon known as the “urban heat island”. We compared airport, rural, and urban bioclimatic conditions in terms of apparent temperature, Thom index, and temperature alone in several sites within a radius of approximately 25 km from the city of Bologna (Italy). The comparison between meteorological monitoring stations within and near the urban area showed the large impact of the urban heat island effect. Nighttime data showed the largest differences among the investigated sites. Minimum apparent temperatures at rural stations were about 3.5°C lower than the urban 30 m reference station, and 6°C lower than the 2 m urban site. The 2 m apparent temperature values within the urban area were several degrees higher (typically 2°C) than those taken above the roof, both for minimum and maximum values. Temporal trends in the different sites were highly correlated (generally above 0.90), but regression residuals were sometimes quite large. Finally, epidemiological implications are briefly addressed.     

Effects of urbanization on turbulent diffusion and mixing depth

Analysis of wind direction fluctuation-data indicates that turbulent diffusion in urban areas is significantly larger than in the country; urban diffusion occurs at a rate characteristic of less stable rural conditions. Differences between urban and rural dispersion are approximately equivalent to changes of one Pasquill stability class. Nighttime urban mixing depths are greater than the corresponding rural values because of the heat island effect. Empirical relationships and Summers' simple model of the heat island are used to derive an expression for the urban mixing depth in terms of city population and rural lapse rate. The expression was found to be in reasonably good agreement with lidar observations of mixing depth in St. Louis.     

曼谷城市扩张生态环境效应

利用1990、2000、2010和2015年4期Landsat数据和2000—2015年的MODIS NDVI数据,开展了泰国曼谷地区近25年来城市扩张分析,包括城市建设用地扩张时空变化和扩张模式分析、扩张的生态环境效应分析以及扩张驱动力分析。结果表明:(1)自1990年以来,曼谷城市建设用地面积持续增长,经历了先快后慢再快的增长过程。城市扩张主要沿东北方向,且在距离城市中心14—20km的范围内扩张最为明显,扩张模式以边缘式和填充式为主。(2)在城市化进程中,植被和热岛对城市扩张分别有不同的响应。植被绿度整体呈下降趋势,下降明显的地区位于距城市中心10—20km的范围内,即城市建设用地明显扩张的区域。热岛分布与城市建成区分布具有空间一致性,自1990s以来,热岛效应整体增强,但局部变异越来越不明显。(3)曼谷城市扩张受到自然地理条件、社会经济、城市布局等多重因素的影响。     

三大沿海城市群滨海湿地的陆源人类活动影响模式

随着陆源人类活动对滨海湿地的干扰日益强烈,研究滨海湿地陆源人类活动影响规律对于滨海湿地资源管理和保护具有重要的现实意义.以我国三大沿海城市群(环渤海湾、长江三角洲、珠江三角洲)滨海湿地为研究对象,分别选取围海造地(直接因子)和流域污染物(营养盐、非点源无机污染物)输入(间接因子)表征1990-2000年间滨海湿地的陆源人类活动影响强度及规律.研究发现,虽然围海造地仍然以农业用地为主(＞50％),但城市建设用地比例随人口城市化率增高而增加,以珠江三角洲城市群最高;在环渤海湾和珠江三角洲城市群区域超过60％的滨海湿地面积受到高或中等污染物输入强度影响,长江三角洲城市群区域则有44.7％的滨海湿地面积处于中等污染物输入强度及以上.通过叠加围海造地和污染物输入双重陆源人类活动的综合影响强度表明,珠江三角洲城市群平均强度指数达到0.79,且处于中等及以上影响强度区域面积比例达到78％,均高于其他两个城市群滨海湿地区域.空间分析结果表明,陆源人类活动对滨海湿地的强影响区域多集中分布于河流人海口、较为发达城市滨海区以及海岸线附近.     

唐山市域1993-2009年热场变化

唐山市是河北省经济和城市化发展都很快的区域,为了给唐山市生态市规划提供生态建设空间布局依据,利用1993年8月18日和2009年8月30日的TM卫星影像,对其市域的热场变化情况进行了研究。结果表明,唐山市域热场都呈现出东部和中部热场较强、其余区域相对较较弱的空间特征。强热岛主要集中在南部的低平原湿地生态系统保护亚区和曹妃甸循环经济与生态港城建设亚区,以及中部的平原生态城镇建设亚区。从相对亮温来看,在1993年到2009年,唐山市的绿岛面积和强热岛面积增加的数量最大,分别达到了38326.05hm²和25497.81hm²,极强热岛的面积2009年是1993年相应面积的3.88倍。最稳定的热力景观斑块类型为绿岛斑块,其保持不变的面积达到了77.6%;而最不稳定的景观斑块类型为极强热岛,其发生变化的面积比例达到了97.05%;其他类型的稳定性相对较小,均低于50%。文章还从植被、土地利用、城市建设和工业发展等方面,分析了唐山市热场变化的原因。     

城市水体对热岛的缓冲性能沿河岸距离的变化规律

城市水体包括城区内的自然水体和人工水体两大类。作为城市生态系统的重要组成部分,水体在缓解城市热岛效应(Urban Heat Island, UHI)上具有重要作用。研究城市热岛效应的现状,探讨水体对城市热岛的缓冲效应,为改善城市热岛效应和生态环境,并对城市进行合理的改造和规划提供理论依据。以长沙市中心城区为研究区域,以南北向贯穿长沙市的湘江河道作为主要研究对象,基于长沙市2016年7月Landsat 8 TIRS遥感影像采用大气校正法反演地表温度(Land Surface Temperature, LST),利用监督分类法获取其同步的城市化进程和土地利用类型,分析市区内地表温度及热岛效应的空间分布特征。同时,通过在湘江两侧建立多个尺度的缓冲区,并将其与地表温度分布及土地利用类型叠置,分析湘江为主的水体对长沙市热环境及各缓冲区的缓冲效应,结果表明:(1)长沙市城市建设格局与热岛效应空间分布基本相似,建筑用地热岛效应更高,极端地表温度达到53.8℃;水体、绿地和裸地的热岛效应相对较低,最低地表温度为16.0℃;(2)湘江对长沙市热岛效应具有缓冲作用,对长沙市热岛效应的平均缓冲距离为400 m;(3)湘江对热岛效应的缓冲能力与水体周边土地利用类型有关,对河东区的缓冲作用小于河西区,对沿江休闲区的缓冲效应大于沿江住宅区。综上所述,长沙市热岛效应强度与用地类型相关,建筑用地热岛效应严重;水体对热岛的缓冲效应显著,但不同缓冲区内缓冲距离存在差异,因此对城市生态格局进行小规模改造可增强水体缓冲作用,缓解城市热岛效应。     

环胶州湾湿地规划对局地气象环境影响的个例分析

基于青岛市2008年发布的城市总体规划(2006～2020),利用城市尺度边界层大气数值模式模拟不同湿地类型和不同湿地面积建设方案下,青岛环胶州湾地区大气温度、风速的变化特征,并对环胶州湾湿地变化潜在的风险进行了分析.数值分析表明,城市水体湿地的设置有利于城市气温的减小,缓解城市热岛效应和提高地面风速;湿地面积减小,会造成局部地区气温升高,风速下降.影响气温、风速变化的区域主要集中在湿地面积增加和减少区域附近.与水体湿地比较,沼泽湿地对城市气象环境的调节作用较弱.这些认识对环胶州湾地区城市规划应重点考虑的因素给予了技术支撑.     

The meteorological sensitivity of ischaemic heart disease mortality events in Birmingham, UK

Winter ischaemic heart disease (IHD) mortality events (ME) were identified in order to establish their degree of meteorological sensitivity. Sensitivity was evaluated using regression of surface meteorological and large-scale atmospheric circulation variables on daily mortality for each mortality event. Critical meteorological variables affecting IHD mortality appear to be local surface dry-bulb and dew-point temperature and large-scale southerly and westerly wind components, atmospheric pressure and vorticity. The rate of change and departure from normal conditions of these variables appear to be especially important for engendering IHD mortality events. Associated with IHD mortality are two broad types of weather conditions: (1) blustery westerly flows and rapidly changing weather from the west and (2) climatologically strong northeasterly to southeasterly flows of cold air, which bring rapidly changing and anomalous thermal conditions to the study area. The general atmospheric circulation patterns that produce these conditions are identified and the implications of results for weather and health studies are discussed. Received: 24 October 2000 / Revised: 16 April 2001 / Accepted: 18 April 2001     

植物物候对重庆主城区热岛效应的响应

为探究植物物候对山地城市内部热岛效应的响应特征,于2016年1月—2017年1月对重庆市主城区80种木本植物进行地面物候观测,同时利用Landsat 8热红外数据反演研究区地表温度,结合同时期地面实测气温,对研究区热岛强度等级进行划分,进而比较城市内部不同热岛强度等级下植物物候变化特征。结果表明,热岛过渡区与热岛区植物展叶期较凉岛区分别提前了5.1 d和8.1 d,初花期分别提前了4.0 d和20.8 d,终花期分别提前了4.8 d和11.6 d,而落叶期分别推迟了8.5 d和18.9 d,即城市内部热岛増温使植物春季物候提前,秋季物候推迟,生长季延长,且物候变化幅度随热岛强度等级增大而增大。不同功能型植物物候对热岛増温的响应存在差异,灌木、常绿植物和引种植物物候比乔木、落叶植物和本土植物更加敏感。本研究在一定程度上填补了我国西南山区物候研究的空缺,可为预测城市植物物候对未来山地城市小气候变化乃至全球气候变暖趋势的响应提供早期预警。     

基于夏季小气候效应的杭州街道适应性设计策略研究

随着城市热岛效应日趋严重,小尺度公共空间的气候研究已成为风景园林学科的研究热点之一。选取杭州市文一西路和古墩路作为实测对象,于2017年8月对各测点空间的空气温度、相对空气湿度、太阳辐射强度、风速风向进行测定,分析小气候因子日变化趋势,并运用Rayman 1.2模型评价人体舒适度,针对性提出街道空间小气候适应性设计策略。研究表明,尽可能设定与城市主导风平行或接近的街道朝向,通过人为增建遮阴空间、调控街道界面小气候一致、采用植物或绿色建筑材料、增设道路中央景观界面,且当人行道及机非分隔绿带分别种植落叶、常绿乔木,设五条绿带,选用乔—灌—草复层结构,同时增设垂直绿化时,能够有效缓解夏季极端热感受,从而营建舒适健康的城市街道空间。     

Annual fluctuations in the immigrant density of rice planthoppers, Sogatella furcifera and Nilaparvata lugens (Hemiptera: Delphacidae), in the Kyushu district of Japan, and associated meteorological conditions

We analyzed overseas immigrations of rice planthoppers in Kyushu, Japan, based on trap data collected during June?CJuly in 2000?C2011. The immigrant density was high in 2006, whereas it was low in 2008 and 2011. To understand these annual fluctuations, we investigated the relationships among trap catches and the following three meteorological conditions: (1) the average temperature during January?CFebruary in North Vietnam (T _NV), where planthoppers successfully overwinter; (2) the strong upper wind from North Vietnam to South China in April?CMay (UW_VC), when the first stage of migration occurs; (3) the strong upper wind from South China to Kyushu in June?CJuly (UW_CJ), when the second stage of migration occurs. In 2008 and 2011, T _NV values were 2.4?C3.0?°C below the 2000?C2011 average of 17.4?°C, and there were 9?C13 fewer days with a strong upper wind (UW_VC?+?UW_CJ) in April?CJuly compared with the 2000?C2011 average of 25?days. This study showed that the rice planthopper immigrant density during the last 12?years correlated significantly with T _NV and the number of days with a strong upper wind (UW_VC?+?UW_CJ) in April?CJuly. Thus, the meteorological conditions affected the immigrant density of rice planthoppers in Kyushu.     

喀斯特山地城市内山体绿地对城市热岛的减温效应——以安顺市西秀区为例

山体绿地是喀斯特山地城市内典型的城市绿地景观类型,其对于改善城市生态环境、提升喀斯特山地城市生态服务功能具有重要作用。以黔中典型喀斯特山地城市安顺市为研究对象,运用2011年和2016年两期热红外遥感影像和城市景观结构空间数据,在反演分析城市热岛效应及其强度时空分布特征的基础上,运用冷热点分析剖析了山体绿地与城市热岛效应冷点分布区的关系,揭示山体绿地对城市热岛的减温效应。结果表明:基于Landsat热红外遥感数据反演地表温度结果显示,2011—2016年,安顺市西秀区平均反演地表温度升高约4℃;主城区一带热岛效应呈现加剧趋势,但总体热岛面积呈下降趋势,绿岛区多分布于水体和山体绿地中,且山体绿地对热岛效应减缓作用逐年增大;热/冷聚集面积呈现上升趋势,约40%~50%的冷聚集区由山体绿地贡献,热聚集区主要由建筑用地和其他用地构成;500 m格网尺度下,山体绿地面积与地表温度呈显著负相关,表现为山体绿地面积占格网比例每增加10%,地表温度将降低0.17~0.27℃。研究结果可为喀斯特山地城市山体绿地管理、城市绿地空间规划和城市热环境缓解提供科学依据。     

广州城市热岛空间分布及时域－频域多尺度变化特征

利用广州47个自动气象站小时数据计算2001年1、4、7和10月各站平均热岛强度,用克里格方法研究广州城市热岛的空间变化,发现其受下垫面、人为热、大气污染、天气系统等影响较大.利用2001年—2002年2月每小时气象数据,用Morlet小波变换方法分析广州热岛周期变化,发现其在频域上具有多尺度的周期振荡,尺度主要是24、168和1 490 h,即日、周、2个月,其次是3个月. 海陆风、下垫面长波辐射、人为热、近地层热量交换等影响其日变化周期,人类活动影响其周变化周期,太阳辐射及天气系统影响其2个月变化周期,季风影响其3个月变化周期.研究表明,广州城市热岛时空变化是天气系统、地表长波辐射、下垫面、大气污染、人为热、地表热量交换等共同作用的结果.     

20世纪90年代上海市热环境变化及其社会经济驱动力

城市化过程导致地表水分蒸腾减少、径流加速、显热的存储和传输增加以及水质降低等一系列生态环境效应,其中最典型的特征就是城市热岛的出现。城市热环境动态主要驱动力可以概括为两大方面:地表覆被的变化与人类社会经济活动。论文采用Landsat的TM/ETM+为基本数据源,先定量反演了每个像元内的陆地表面温度,以此探讨了20世纪90年代上海市主城区热环境的动态演化和社会经济驱动力。研究结果揭示,20世纪90年代上海市主城区热岛范围显著扩大,但中心城区的热岛强度在下降,空间格局也趋于复杂;通过分析,城市热环境空间格局动态演变是不同尺度上、相互嵌套、相互影响的多种驱动力的综合作用结果。其中,城市建成区的快速扩展是热岛范围不断扩展的最显性驱动力;中心城区人口密度显著下降是热岛中心强度降低的一个综合性驱动因子,而以重化工业为代表的能耗布局改变则是中心城区热岛强度降低的一个主要驱动力;通过增加绿化面积布局等人为措施改变热辐射和存储模式,对缓解城市热环境来说是最有意义的因素。由于多种驱动力相互嵌套、交互作用,因此建立城市热环境演变驱动机制的定量模型还十分困难,但是研究结果对于制定城市热环境改善政策和编制合理的城市规划等都具有一定的借鉴意义。     

Sea–land breeze in a coastal city and its effect on pollen transport

This paper presents a statistical study of the sea-land breeze in Mar del Plata (Argentina) to characterize the periods of the year when the breeze affects pollen transport, particularly the dispersion of airborne Poaceae pollen between urban and rural areas. In order to analyse the sea breeze circulation, hourly data from coastal, urban and rural meteorological stations were used. The effect of the sea breeze on the particulate matter was analysed from syncronic hourly airborne pollen records from an urban and a rural area. A sea-land breeze appeared between spring and early autumn in the hours of greatest diurnal warming. Results showed that the surface wind direction most probably associated with this phenomenon is NE and E, the time of occurrence shifting to new directions following the counterclockwise rotation, according to theoretical models for the Southern Hemisphere. Poaceae emission takes place in the morning, during the hours of maximum insolation. However, after the occurrence of the breeze, a rise in pollen concentration between 2000 hours and 0200 hours is detected because of pollen reentrainment brought about by air recirculation. The results showed that breeze transport brings a regional component to pollen assemblage.