Revision of the Australasian genus Pseudidarnes Girault, 1927 (Hymenoptera,Agaonidae, Sycophaginae)

The species of Pseudidarnes are revised, and six species are described: P. acaudus Farache & Rasplus, sp. n.; P. astridae Farache & Rasplus, sp. n.; P. badiogeminus Farache & Rasplus, sp. n.; P. cooki Farache & Rasplus, sp. n.; P. kjellbergi Farache & Rasplus, sp. n.; P. laevis Farache & Rasplus, sp. n. Pseudidarnes minerva Girault, 1927 and P. flavicollis Bouček, 1988 are redescribed. A key to the species is provided as well as illustrations for all females and all known males (except the wingless male of P. minerva). We also provided further discussion on ecology, morphological patterns, and host taxonomy. Online dichotomous and multi-access interactive LUCID keys to all Pseudidarnes species are available at http://www.figweb.org/.     

Conidarnes,a new oriental genus of Sycophaginae (Hymenoptera,Agaonidae) associated with Ficus section Conosycea (Moraceae)

The sycophagines are strictly associated with two subgenera of Ficus L. (Moraceae), namely Sycomorus and Urostigma. They mostly oviposit through the fig wall and lay their eggs within the fig flowers, being either gall-makers or parasitoids of other fig wasps. In this contribution, a new genus of Sycophaginae, Conidarnes Farache & Rasplus, gen. n., is described with seven new species: Conidarnes achterbergi Farache & Rasplus, sp. n.; Conidarnes bergi Farache & Rasplus, sp. n.; Conidarnes laevis Farache & Rasplus, sp. n.; Conidarnes santineloi Farache & Rasplus, sp. n.; Conidarnes subtectae Farache & Rasplus, sp. n.; Conidarnes sulcata Farache & Rasplus, sp. n.; and Conidarnes sumatranae Farache & Rasplus, sp. n. Illustrations, morphological diagnoses, dichotomous keys and multi-entry online keys to species are provided. Conidarnes species strictly occur in the oriental region, and their distribution does not overlap with the distribution of the two other genera belonging to the same clade. Due to their relative rarity, we encourage extensive sampling of Conosycea figs to improve our knowledge of the genus.     

Host-specificity and coevolution among pollinating and nonpollinating New World fig wasps

Figs (Ficus spp., Moraceae) and their pollinating wasps (Hymenoptera, Agaonidae, Chalcidoidea) constitute a classic example of an obligate plant-pollinator mutualism, and have become an ideal system for addressing questions on coevolution, speciation, and the maintenance of mutualisms. In addition to pollinating wasps, figs host several types of nonpollinating, parasitic wasps from a diverse array of Chalcid subfamilies with varied natural histories and ecological strategies (e.g. competitors, gallers, and parasitoids). Although a few recent studies have addressed the question of codivergence between specific genera of pollinating and nonpollinating fig wasps, no study has addressed the history of divergence of a fig wasp community comprised of multiple genera of wasps associated with a large number of sympatric fig hosts. Here, we conduct phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequences (COI) using 411 individuals from 69 pollinating and nonpollinating fig wasp species to assess relationships within and between five genera of fig wasps (Pegoscapus, Idarnes, Heterandrium, Aepocerus, Physothorax) associated with 17 species of New World Urostigma figs from section Americana. We show that host-switching and multiple wasp species per host are ubiquitous across Neotropical nonpollinating wasp genera. In spite of these findings, cophylogenetic analyses (TREEMAP 1.0, TREEMAP 2.02beta, and parafit) reveal evidence of codivergence among fig wasps from different ecological guilds. Our findings further challenge the classical notion of strict-sense coevolution between figs and their associated wasps, and mirror conclusions from detailed molecular studies of other mutualisms that have revealed common patterns of diffuse coevolution and asymmetric specialization among the participants.     

Diversification in the use of resources by Idarnes species: bypassing functional constraints in the fig–fig wasp interaction

Mutualisms such as the fig–fig wasp mutualism are generally exploited by parasites. We demonstrate that amongst nonpollinating fig wasps (NPFWs) parasitic on Ficus citrifolia, a species of Idarnes galls flowers and another species feeds on galls induced by other wasps killing their larvae. The galling wasp inserts its ovipositor through the fig wall into the fig cavity. The ovipositor then follows a sinuous path and is introduced through the stigma and style of the flower. The egg is deposited between the integument and nucellus, in the exact location where the pollinating mutualistic wasp would have laid its egg. Gall induction is a complex process. In contrast, the path followed by the ovipositor of the other species is straightforward: attacking a larva within a developed gall poses different constraints. Shifts in feeding regime have occurred repeatedly in NPFWs. Monitoring traits associated with such repeated evolutionary shifts may help understand underlying functional constraints. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 106 , 114–122.     

Secondary galling: a novel feeding strategy among ‘non‐pollinating’ fig wasps from Ficus curtipes

相似文献   

Characterization of microsatellite markers for Sycoscapter nonpollinating fig wasps

We isolated 18 microsatellites from Sycoscapter australis, a nonpollinating fig wasp that develops in figs of Ficus macrophylla, and assessed their variability in 20 wasps. We further optimized nine of these loci for use in three other Sycoscapter species that develop in Ficus rubiginosa figs and assessed their variability in 47-140 wasps per species. These are the first microsatellites developed for nonpollinating fig wasps and show sufficient polymorphism to become important tools in evolutionary and genetical studies of Sycoscapter wasps.     

One fig to bind them all: host conservatism in a fig wasp community unraveled by cospeciation analyses among pollinating and nonpollinating fig wasps

The study of chalcid wasps that live within syconia of fig trees (Moraceae, Ficus ), provides a unique opportunity to investigate the evolution of specialized communities of insects. By conducting cospeciation analyses between figs of section Galoglychia and some of their associated fig wasps, we show that, although host switches and duplication have evidently played a role in the construction of the current associations, the global picture is one of significant cospeciation throughout the evolution of these communities. Contrary to common belief, nonpollinating wasps are at least as constrained as pollinators by their host association in their diversification in this section. By adapting a randomization test in a supertree context, we further confirm that wasp phylogenies are significantly congruent with each other, and build a "wasp community" supertree that retrieves Galoglychia taxonomic subdivisions. Altogether, these results probably reflect wasp host specialization but also, to some extent, they might indicate that niche saturation within the fig prevents recurrent intrahost speciation and host switching. Finally, a comparison of ITS2 sequence divergence of cospeciating pairs of wasps suggests that the diversification of some pollinating and nonpollinating wasps of Galoglychia figs has been synchronous but that pollinating wasps exhibit a higher rate of molecular evolution.     

高榕雌花期传粉榕小蜂和欺骗性小蜂的繁殖特点

榕树及其专一性传粉榕小蜂组成了动植物界最为经典的协同进化关系,传粉榕小蜂演化出欺骗性是非常罕见的。在雌雄同株的高榕隐头果内,共存着一种传粉榕小蜂Eupristina altissima和一种欺骗性的小蜂Eupristina sp.,两种小蜂在雌花期进入隐头果内繁殖,但有不同的繁殖特点。对比研究了两种小蜂从成虫羽化到产卵和传粉这个阶段的雌蜂个体大小、孕卵量及繁殖差异,结果表明:羽化期两种雌蜂的平均个体小,经飞行小个体的雌蜂易死亡,大个体雌蜂到达接受树,但通过苞片通道,一些个体较大的传粉榕小蜂被夹死导致进入果腔的雌蜂相对小,而欺骗性小蜂易通过苞片以至进入果腔的雌蜂个体较大。两种未产卵雌蜂均表现为个体大者孕卵量较多,但两种雌蜂的平均孕卵量没有差异。即使有充足雌花资源产卵,两种雌蜂均未产完所有卵,产卵后两种雌蜂卵巢中的卵量均显著减少,遗留下的卵量两种小蜂间没有差异。传粉榕小蜂只有部分个体传完所携带花粉,并表现为传粉越成功的雌蜂,产卵越多。存在种内竞争时,两种小蜂的产卵量均减少,传粉榕小蜂的传粉效率也降低。在种间竞争背景下,欺骗性小蜂产卵更成功,传粉榕小蜂的产卵和传粉量均受到极大抑制。研究结果说明雌花期隐头果内传粉榕小蜂只适量利用雌花资源产卵繁殖后代,更有效地传粉繁殖榕树种子,这可能是维持榕-蜂互惠系统稳定共存的重要机制之一;欺骗者稳定存在需降低与传粉者的直接竞争,而欺骗者和传粉者分散在不同果内,甚至是不同的树上繁殖是理想的繁殖策略。     

钝叶榕(Ficus curtipes)非传粉小蜂交配行为

榕树及其传粉榕小蜂繁殖上相互依存,被认为是生物界中协同进化时间最悠久,相互关系最密切的一对生物;在大多数榕树种类的隐头花序内,除了传粉榕小蜂外,还共存着多种非传粉小蜂,它们的繁殖行为直接影响着榕树和传粉榕小蜂的繁殖和互惠稳定。钝叶榕(Ficus curtipes Corner),是一种雌雄同株的绞杀性榕树。研究在西双版纳热带植物园里共收集钝叶榕100个隐头果内的榕小蜂,获得9493号标本;其中,包括1种传粉小蜂和5种非传粉小蜂,钝叶榕传粉小蜂Eupristina sp.占总数的4466%,杨氏榕树金小蜂Diaziella yangi 占46.13%,而其它4种非传粉小蜂（Lipothymus sp., Sycobia sp., Philotrypesis sp.和Sycoscopter sp.）仅占9.20%。前3种榕小蜂雌蜂进到果腔产卵,其余3种在果外产卵。观测23个钝叶榕榕果出蜂情况发现,6种榕小蜂在钝叶榕隐头花序内遵循严格的羽化出蜂顺序,首先是Sycobia sp.,次之是Lipothymus sp.,再次之是杨氏榕树金小蜂,最后是钝叶榕传粉小蜂、Philotrypesis sp.和Sycoscopter sp.。5种非传粉小蜂的交配场所与雄蜂翅型无关,雄蜂有翅型的杨氏榕树金小蜂大部分交配在果内完成,而且它们的雄蜂为争夺交配机会存在激烈的打斗行为;雄蜂无翅型的Lipothymus sp.有部分雄蜂爬出隐头果,在果壁和附近的叶片背面交配;雄蜂有翅型的Sycobia sp.,其所有交配都发生在果外;Philotrypesis sp.和Sycoscopter sp. 雄蜂均无翅,它们的交配全发生在果内。局域配偶竞争使榕小蜂性比偏雌,杨氏榕树金小蜂雄蜂虽然有翅,但大部分交配发生在榕果内,这将影响其最佳的性比率。因此,依赖雄蜂翅型并不能很好地预测榕小蜂的交配场所和性比率。     

细叶榕榕小蜂群落结构及动态变化

细叶榕为桑科榕属植物,雌雄异株,广泛分布于印度-澳大利亚(Asia-Australasia)榕树植物分布中心区,它既是热带雨林的主要树种,也是庭院和行道绿化的常见树种。通过全年定时、定点、定株观察与采集,对福州2个样地19株细叶榕隐头果内小蜂群落结构及其动态进行研究。全年在两个样地530个隐头果内共收集到小蜂26318只。发现细叶榕隐头果内有17种小蜂,隶属小蜂总科Chalcidoidae中的榕小蜂科(Agaonidae)、隐针榕小蜂亚科(Epichrysomallinae)、金小蜂科(Pteromalidae)、广肩小蜂科(Eurytomidae)和刻腹小蜂科(Ormyridae),其中榕小蜂科的Eupristina verticillata是细叶榕唯一的传粉者,传粉方式为主动传粉,其性比为0.16,具明显偏雌现象;非传粉小蜂中,有翅雄蜂的榕小蜂(Odontofroggatia galili,O.quinifuniculus,O.corneri,Sycophila sp.1,Sycophila sp.2,Meselatus bicolor)的性比(0.46—0.55)较高,无翅雄蜂的榕小蜂(P.taiwanensis,Sycoscaptergajimaru,W.microcarpae)的性比(0.31—0.37)较低,而既具有翅雄蜂又具无翅雄蜂的非传粉榕小蜂(P.okinavensis)性比(0.47)居中。榕小蜂的性比可能与其交配行为策略有关。在细叶榕小蜂群落结构中,传粉小蜂E.verticillata的重要值占绝对优势,非传粉小蜂O.galili和Sycophila sp.2的重要值仅次于传粉小蜂。根据榕小蜂发生数量及连续性,可将细叶榕隐头果中的榕小蜂分为常见种和偶见种,E.verticillata、Odontofroggatia galili、Walkerella microcarpae、Sycophila sp.1、Sycophila sp.2和Philotrypesis okinavensis为常见种,其余11个种为偶见种。传粉小蜂和非传粉小蜂的种类和数量呈现明显的季节性变化。2月至6月期间,每月出现的榕小蜂种类较少,仅3—4种,单果内平均有传粉小蜂48.88只,非传粉小蜂13.64只;7月至翌年1月间,每月出现的榕小蜂种类较多,达6—13种,单果内平均有传粉小蜂24.38只,非传粉小蜂18.89只,表明,7月—翌年1月单果内传粉小蜂数量比较于2—6月极显著降低(P<0.001),而单果内非传粉小蜂数量极显著提高(P=0.001),同时种类也显著增加。雄花期榕小蜂的种类与数量取决于雌花期产卵榕小蜂的种类与数量,而雨量、气温以及雌花期花序果数量对产卵小蜂的数量,以及小蜂产卵行为都可能产生影响。本研究结果可为城市绿化和热带雨林生物多样性保护提供科学依据。     

笔管榕榕小蜂的群落结构与物种多样性

笔管榕为桑科榕属落叶乔木,雌雄同株,为福建地区的常见树种。笔管榕榕果内生活着多种榕小蜂,它们与笔管榕共同构成了榕树-榕小蜂共生体系。通过全年(2011年7月至2012年7月间)对福州地区不同样地的30株笔管榕进行的定时、定点、定株观察与采集,在15批次830个榕果中,共收集到50817头榕小蜂。笔管榕榕果内有7种小蜂,隶属于小蜂总科中的6个科(亚科)7个属,其中榕小蜂科的Platyscapa ishiiana为传粉小蜂,其余6种为非传粉小蜂,分别属于金小蜂科、广肩小蜂科、姬小蜂科及隐针榕小蜂亚科。非传粉小蜂中的Philotrypesis sp.、Acophila mikii、Otitesella ako、Sycophila sp.和Sycobiomorpha sp.小蜂几乎在全年的每个月都可采集到,属常见种。Aprostocetus sp.全年仅收集到2头,为偶见种。笔管榕榕果内的榕小蜂种类在不同月份、不同季节没有明显变化,但不同种类榕小蜂的数量变化明显。在笔管榕榕小蜂群落结构中,全年有9个月均是传粉小蜂占优势,但在1月、9月和11月的采集批次中,非传粉小蜂占优势。非传粉小蜂(Acophila mikii、Sycophila sp.、Philotrypesis sp.和Otitesella ako)常呈爆发性发生,每批次中往往是1-2种的非传粉小蜂数量较多,但不同批次,数量较多的非传粉小蜂种类往往不同,因此在小蜂群落结构中未见某种非传粉小蜂占明显优势。福州地区笔管榕榕果内小蜂群落的的多样性指数为0.72,均匀度指数为0.37,丰富度指数为0.55,优势集中性指数为0.68。分析了6种小蜂的性比,结果表明:传粉小蜂的性比极度偏雌,非传粉小蜂虽然也偏性,但均高于传粉小蜂,推测榕小蜂性比与雄蜂的翅型和交配场所有关。非传粉小蜂的数量和传粉小蜂总数、雌蜂数和雄蜂数均呈极显著负相关,和性比呈极显著正相关关系,说明非传粉小蜂对传粉小蜂的雌、雄蜂都有负面影响,且传粉小蜂雌蜂减少的幅度大于传粉小蜂雄蜂,从而导致其性比升高。非传粉小蜂中Acophila mikii、Sycobiomorpha sp.、Otitesella ako Ishii为造瘿类群,Philotrypesis sp.、Sycophila sp.属于寄居者或寄生者类群,非传粉小蜂中的寄生或寄居类群与造瘿类群相比,对传粉小蜂的负面影响更大。研究结果为榕-蜂协同进化研究,以及城市绿化和生物多样性保护提供科学依据。     

Sugar secretion and ant protection in Ficus benguetensis: Toward a general trend of fig–ant interactions

The relationship between plants and ants is often mediated by the presence of extrafloral nectaries (EFNs) that attract ants and provide rewards by protecting plants from herbivores or parasites. Ficus trees (Moraceae) and their pollinators (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae) are parasitized by many nonpollinating fig wasp species (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) that decrease the reproductive output of the mutualistic partners. Previous studies have shown that ants living on and patrolling Ficus species can efficiently deter parasitic wasps. The aim of this study was to verify the presence of EFNs on figs of Ficus benguetensis and test the hypothetical protection service provided by ants. Figs in different developmental stages were collected from Fu-Yang Eco Park, Taipei, Taiwan. Sugars on the fig surface were collected and analyzed through high-performance anion-exchange chromatography. Moreover, ants were excluded from the figs to determine the effect of ants on the nonpollinating fig wasps. We identified three oligosaccharides whose relative proportions varied with the fig developmental phase. In addition, results showed that the ant-excluded figs were heavily parasitized and produced three times less pollinators than did the control figs. Finally, the specific interactions of Ficus benguetensis with ants and the relationship between figs and ants in general are discussed.     

Non‐pollinating Fig Wasps Decrease Pollinator and Seed Production in Ficus andicola (Moraceae)

Fig trees ( Ficus spp.) and Agaonine fig‐wasps participate in an obligate mutualism. Fig wasps can only develop within fig inflorescences (syconia) and they are the only organisms capable of pollinating fig flowers. Other non‐pollinating wasps that lay eggs by inserting their ovipositors from the outside can also develop in syconia. These parasitic wasps may be parasitoids of either pollinating or other non‐pollinating wasps, or form galls in fig flowers or other tissues. Depending on this interaction, parasitic wasps may have various effects on the production of pollinating wasps and seeds. Wasps in the genus Idarnes, which parasitize New World figs (subgenus Urostigma), have an effect on wasp production but not on seed production. Heterandrium spp., which have short ovipositors and lay on external flowers, are infrequent and no effect on seed production has been documented. In the Colombian Andes, Idarnes spp. and Heterandrium spp. are the most frequent parasites of the Ficus andicola — Pegoscapus sp. mutualism, affecting 62 and 43 percent of syconia, respectively. Controlling for other factors that influence wasp and seed production, such as number of foundresses, syconium size and tree, we found that Idarnes reduced pollinator production by almost half but did not reduce seed production, whereas Heterandrium reduced seed production by 40 percent, and marginally affected pollinator production. Our results provide the first clear documentation of Heterandrium spp. impact on fig seed production. Whether the relative abundance of this genus is a generalized phenomenon in montane forest remains to be determined.     

西双版纳聚果榕隐头果内小蜂群落结构及种间关系

聚果榕Ficus racemosa Linn.是雌雄同株榕树,它是西双版纳热带雨林生态系统中的一个常见种群。聚果榕必须依靠聚果榕小蜂Ceratosolen fusciceps Mayr传粉才能获得有性繁殖,而聚果榕小蜂又必须依靠聚果榕隐头果内短柱花繁衍后代,两者间形成了种间专一的互惠共生体系。同时,在其隐头果内还存在一个复杂的非传粉小蜂功能群,它们主要是榕树种子和传粉榕小蜂的寄生者。在云南省西双版纳自治州勐腊县勐仑镇选取了5个样地,对聚果榕单果内小蜂群落组成和种间相互关系进行研究。在不同时间段采集聚果榕单果242个,共收集小蜂366660头。聚果榕隐头果内有6种小蜂,隶属小蜂总科Chalcidoidae中的榕小蜂科Agaonidae、长尾小蜂科Caliimomidae、金小蜂科Pteromalidae,其中榕小蜂科中的C．fusciceps是聚果榕唯一的传粉者。金小蜂科中的Apocryta westwoodi Grandi和Apocryta sp.两个种是榕小蜂的寄生者,它们的寄生是传粉榕小蜂的种群数量减少因素之一。长尾小蜂科中Platyneura agraensis Joseph,Platyneura mayri Rasplus和Platyneura testacea Motschulsky3个种是寄生榕树种子或与榕小蜂争夺食物(瘿花)资源的小蜂类群,它们的出现与发生,致使聚果榕正在发育成种子的长柱小花形成瘿花,同时一部分种类把卵寄生在已被榕小蜂产卵的短柱小花子房中与榕小蜂争夺食物资源,致使榕小蜂食物资源的匮乏而死亡,对传粉小蜂种群有明显的影响。传粉小蜂从花托口钻入隐头果内,在隐头果内的长柱小花传粉和短柱小花子房中产卵,5种非传粉小蜂从隐头果外部把产卵器刺穿果肉把卵产在小花子房上。通过对5块样地隐头果内小蜂群落的综合分析发现,传粉榕小蜂为优势种群,而Apocryta sp.种的数量最少。在传粉及非传粉小蜂自然群体中各种类性比明显具有偏雌现象。小蜂群落表现异常的是聚果榕孤立株的样地,该样地传粉小蜂个体数量明显下降,非传粉小蜂个体数量则增加,各小蜂种群之间竞争激烈,出现C．fusciceps和P．mayri两个优势种。     

Tracking the elusive history of diversification in plant–herbivorous insect–parasitoid food webs: insights from figs and fig wasps

The food webs consisting of plants, herbivorous insects and their insect parasitoids are a major component of terrestrial biodiversity. They play a central role in the functioning of all terrestrial ecosystems, and the number of species involved is mind‐blowing (Nyman et al. 2015 ). Nevertheless, our understanding of the evolutionary and ecological determinants of their diversity is still in its infancy. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Sutton et al. ( 2016 ) open a window into the comparative analysis of spatial genetic structuring in a set of comparable multitrophic models, involving highly species‐specific interactions: figs and fig wasps. This is the first study to compare genetic structure using population genetics tools in a fig‐pollinating wasp (Pleistodontes imperialis sp1) and its main parasitoid (Sycoscapter sp.A). The fig‐pollinating wasp has a discontinuous spatial distribution that correlates with genetic differentiation, while the parasitoid bridges the discontinuity by parasitizing other pollinator species on the same host fig tree and presents basically no spatial genetic structure. The full implications of these results for our general understanding of plant–herbivorous insect–insect parasitoids diversification become apparent when envisioned within the framework of recent advances in fig and fig wasp biology.     

High incidences and similar patterns of Wolbachia infection in fig wasp communities from three different continents

Abstract Wolbachia are endosymbiotic bacteria that infect numerous arthropod species. Previous studies in Panama and Australia revealed that the majority of fig wasp species harbor Wolbachia infections, but that similar patterns of incidence have evolved independently with different wasp species and Wolbachia strains on the two continents. We found Wolbachia infections in 25/47 species (53%) of fig wasp associated with 25 species of Chinese figs. Phylogenetic analyses of Wolbachia wsp sequences indicated that very similar strains are not obviously found in either closely related or ecologically linked fig wasps species. The extremely high prevalence of Wolbachia in fig wasps (over 50% of species infected) is not constrained by geographical origin and is a recurrent theme of fig wasp/Wolbachia interactions.     

Expression and evolutionary divergence of the non-conventional olfactory receptor in four species of fig wasp associated with one species of fig

Background  

The interactions of fig wasps and their host figs provide a model for investigating co-evolution. Fig wasps have specialized morphological characters and lifestyles thought to be adaptations to living in the fig's syconium. Although these aspects of natural history are well documented, the genetic mechanism(s) underlying these changes remain(s) unknown. Fig wasp olfaction is the key to host-specificity. The Or83b gene class, an unusual member of olfactory receptor family, plays a critical role in enabling the function of conventional olfactory receptors. Four Or83b orthologous genes from one pollinator (PFW) (Ceratosolen solmsi) and three non-pollinator fig wasps (NPFWs) (Apocrypta bakeri, Philotrypesis pilosa and Philotrypesis sp.) associated with one species of fig (Ficus hispida) can be used to better understand the molecular mechanism underlying the fig wasp's adaptation to its host. We made a comparison of spatial tissue-specific expression patterns and substitution rates of one orthologous gene in these fig wasps and sought evidence for selection pressures.     

Description and phylogeny of a new Neotropical genus of Acalyptini (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Curculioninae) associated with the staminodes of Cyclanthaceae

The weevil genus Azotoctla gen. nov. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Curculioninae: Acalyptini Thomson), is described to accommodate the following 15 new Neotropical species: Azotoctla aecuatorialis sp. nov. (Ecuador), Azotoctla anerunca sp. nov. (Ecuador), Azotoctla angustacra sp. nov. (Ecuador), Azotoctla curvirostra sp. nov. (Peru), Azotoctla dasygastra sp. nov. (Costa Rica and Honduras), Azotoctla femorata sp. nov. (Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador and Panama), Azotoctla gomezi sp. nov. (Colombia, Costa Rica and Panama), Azotoctla gottsbergeri sp. nov. (Brazil), Azotoctla clemmyssa sp. nov. (Colombia), Azotoctla melolauta sp. nov. (Colombia), Azotoctla migueli sp. nov. (Colombia), Azotoctla nana sp. nov. (Panama), Azotoctla punctata sp. nov. (Costa Rica), Azotoctla tibiatra sp. nov. (Belize), and Azotoctla tuberquiai sp. nov. (Colombia). Azotoctla is placed in the tribe Acalyptini, subtribe Staminodeina Franz, thus representing the sister taxon of Staminodeus Franz. The monophyly of Azotoctla is supported by the following inferred traits: a noncarinate rostrum that is tumescent above the antennal insertion in males; equilaterally subtriangular hemisternites of the male sternum 8; paired, longitudinal, laterally positioned sclerites of the aedeagus; and a bifurcate lamina of the female sternum 8, which bears explanate, diverging furcal arms. A key to the species of Azotoctla is provided; and the salient features of each species are illustrated and presented along with distributional and natural history data. A morphological cladistic analysis of 23 terminal species (eight outgroup, 15 ingroup) and 33 characters yielded a single most parsimonious cladogram (length = 75 steps, consistency index = 52, retention index = 77), with the ingroup topology ((A. aecuatorialis, (A. anerunca, A. gottsbergeri)), (A. punctata, ((A. angustacra, A. nana), (A. tibiatra, (A. clemmyssa, (A. curvirostra, A. femorata)), (A. melolauta, ((A. gomezi, A. migueli), (A. dasygastra, A. tuberquiai))))))). Species of Azotoctla are reproductively associated with the ephemeral staminodes of different members of the Neotropical monocot family Cyclanthaceae; most commonly with the widespread genus Carludovica Ruiz & Pavón. The interspecific homogeneity in external morphology, coupled with marked differences in genital traits and an apparent absence of narrow geographical ranges mediated by either host plants and/or biogeographical factors, jointly suggest that the diversification of Azotoctla is a relatively recent phenomenon and driven strongly by sexual selection. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 166 , 559–623.     

榕小蜂的产卵模式及其对子代性比的影响

于2007年4月—2007年7月在中国科学院西双版纳热带植物园,通过干预控制榕小蜂产卵的方法研究了聚果榕的传粉榕小蜂Ceratosolen fusciceps和非传粉小蜂Platyneura mayri及垂叶榕的非传粉小蜂Acophila sp.1和Wakerella benjamini等的产卵顺序。对传粉榕小蜂,在完成放蜂后不同间隔时间向榕果内注入乙醚杀死小蜂;对非传粉榕小蜂,在放蜂后不同间隔时间将其从纱网袋内全部放出,从而控制了各种榕小蜂的产卵时间。到榕果成熟后,收集了榕果内的小蜂,并分析比较各种榕小蜂在不同产卵时间下的子代性比。结果表明：Ceratosolen fusciceps、P. mayri和Acophila sp.1在产卵的最初时间内倾向于产下更多的雄性后代,而随后的时间内则产下更多的雌性伴随少量的雄性后代,这样的产卵顺序导致子代性比随着母代产卵时间的延长而下降,榕小蜂后代雌性比例显著高于雄性。同时,子代榕小蜂数量随母代产卵时间的延长而增加,这在一定程度上解释了单头繁殖雌蜂的子代性比随子代数量的增加而减少的现象。而Wakerella benjamini在产卵顺序上是随机的,在其开始产卵后的不同时间段内子代性比都接近于50%。这一结果表明榕小蜂的产卵顺序与母代产卵时间的长短对子代性比有极为重要的影响。